Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[1–3] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because cancer therapy side effects may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Pediatric soft tissue sarcomas are a heterogenous group of malignant tumors that originate from primitive mesenchymal tissue and account for 6% of all childhood tumors (rhabdomyosarcomas, 3%; other soft tissue sarcomas, 3%).[2] For more information, see the Histopathological Classification of Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma section.

Rhabdomyosarcoma, a tumor of striated muscle, is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children. It accounts for 50% of the soft tissue sarcomas in children aged 0 to 14 years.[2] For more information, see Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment.

In pediatrics, the remaining soft tissue sarcomas are commonly referred to as nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas (NRSTS) and account for approximately 3.5% of all childhood tumors.[2,4] This summary discusses the treatment of NRSTS.

NRSTS are often classified according to the normal tissue types from which they are derived. These types include various connective tissues, peripheral nervous system tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and vascular tissue. The classification also includes undifferentiated tumors that are not clearly related to specific tissue types. For more information about vascular tumors in children, see Childhood Vascular Tumors Treatment.

Incidence of Soft Tissue Sarcoma by Age and Histology

The distribution of soft tissue sarcomas by histology and age, based on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program information from 2000 to 2015, is depicted in Table 1. The distribution of histological subtypes by age is also shown in Figure 2.

Table 1. Age Distribution of Soft Tissue Sarcomas in Children Aged 0 to 19 Years (SEER 2000–2015)a

		Age <5 y	Age 5–9 y	Age 10–14 y	Age 15–19 y	Age <20 y	All Ages (Including Adults)
pPNET = peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumors; SEER = Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results.
aSource: SEER database.[5]
All soft tissue and other extraosseous sarcomas		1,124	773	1,201	1,558	4,656	80,269
Rhabdomyosarcomas		668	417	382	327	1,794	3,284
Fibrosarcomas, peripheral nerve, and other fibrous neoplasms		137	64	112	181	494	6,645
	Fibroblastic and myofibroblastic tumors	114	33	41	77	265		4,228
	Nerve sheath tumors	23	31	70	102	226		2,303
	Other fibromatous neoplasms	0	0	1	2	3		114
Kaposi sarcoma		2	1	2	10	15	7,722
Other specified soft tissue sarcomas		237	238	559	865	1,899	49,004
	Ewing tumor and Askin tumor of soft tissue	37	36	72	113	258		596
	pPNET of soft tissue	24	23	42	56	145		402
	Extrarenal rhabdoid tumor	75	8	9	4	96		205
	Liposarcomas	4	6	37	79	126		10,749
	Fibrohistiocytic tumors	43	73	142	223	481		13,531
	Leiomyosarcomas	11	14	19	41	85		14,107
	Synovial sarcomas	12	39	141	210	402		2,608
	Blood vessel tumors	12	9	11	32	64		4,238
	Osseous and chondromatous neoplasms of soft tissue	1	6	16	14	37		1,018
	Alveolar soft parts sarcoma	4	5	22	33	64		211
	Miscellaneous soft tissue sarcomas	14	19	48	60	141		1,339
Unspecified soft tissue sarcomas		80	53	146	175	454	13,614

Soft tissue sarcomas include both rhabdomyosarcomas and NRSTS. NRSTS are more common in adolescents and adults.[6] Most of the information regarding treatment and natural history of the disease in younger patients has been based on studies in adult patients. The distributions of soft tissue sarcomas by age according to stage (Figure 1), histological subtype (Figure 2), and tumor site (Figure 3) are shown below.[7]

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Prognosis and Prognostic Factors

The prognosis of NRSTS varies greatly depending on the following factors:[73–75]

• Site of the primary tumor.
• Tumor size.
• Tumor grade. For more information, see the Soft Tissue Sarcoma Tumor Pathological Grading System section.
• Tumor histology.
• Depth of tumor invasion.
• Presence of metastases and site of the metastatic tumor.
• Resectability of the tumor.
• Use of radiation therapy.

In a review of a large adult series of NRSTS, patients with superficial extremity sarcomas had a better prognosis than did patients with deep tumors. This may be a reflection of differences in resectability. Thus, in addition to grade and size, the depth of invasion of the tumor should be considered.[76]

Data specific to NRSTS in children and adolescents are difficult to separate. Several adult and pediatric series have shown that patients with large or invasive tumors have a significantly worse prognosis than do those with small, noninvasive tumors. A retrospective review of soft tissue sarcomas (rhabdomyosarcoma and NRSTS) in children and adolescents suggests that the 5-cm cutoff used for adults with soft tissue sarcoma may not be ideal for smaller children, especially infants. The review identified an interaction between tumor diameter and body surface area.[77] This relationship has been questioned in a rhabdomyosarcoma study and requires further study to determine the therapeutic implications of the observation.[78]

Some pediatric NRSTS are associated with a better outcome. For instance, patients with infantile fibrosarcoma who present at age 4 years or younger have an excellent prognosis. This excellent outcome occurs because surgery alone can cure a significant number of these patients and infantile fibrosarcoma is highly chemosensitive. This tumor also responds well to larotrectinib, a specific tropomyosin receptor kinase inhibitor.[22,79]

Prognosis based on the Children’s Oncology Group (COG) ARST0332 trial

Soft tissue sarcomas in older children and adolescents often behave similarly to those in adult patients.[22,80] A large, prospective, multinational COG study (ARST0332 [NCT00346164]) enrolled newly diagnosed patients younger than 30 years. Patients were assigned to treatment based on their risk group. Risk groups were defined by the presence of metastasis, tumor resectability and margins, and tumor size and grade. For more information, see Figure 4.[81][Level of evidence B4]

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Each patient was assigned to one of three risk groups and one of four treatment groups. The risk groups were as follows:[81]

1. Low risk: Nonmetastatic R0 (resection was complete with negative microscopic margins) or R1 (microscopically positive margins) low-grade tumor, or ≤5 cm R1 high-grade tumor.
2. Intermediate risk: Nonmetastatic R0 or R1 >5 cm high-grade tumor, or unresected tumor of any size or grade.
3. High risk: Metastatic tumor.

The treatment groups were as follows:

1. Surgery alone (n = 205).
2. Radiation therapy (55.8 Gy) (n = 17).
3. Chemoradiation therapy (chemotherapy and 55.8 Gy radiation therapy) (n = 111).
4. Neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (chemotherapy and 45 Gy radiation therapy, then surgery and radiation therapy boost based on margins with continued chemotherapy) (n = 196).

Chemotherapy included six cycles of ifosfamide (3 g/m2 per dose) given intravenously on days 1 through 3 and five cycles of doxorubicin (37.5 mg/m2 per dose) given intravenously on days 1 to 2 every 3 weeks, with the sequence adjusted based on the timing of surgery or radiation therapy.

For the 550 patients enrolled, 529 evaluable patients were included in the analysis. At a median follow-up of 6.5 years (interquartile range [IQR], 4.9–7.9), the survival results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Survival Results for the Children’s Oncology Group ARST0332 Trial

	5-Year Event-Free Survival		5-Year Overall Survival
Risk Group	Events/Patients	Estimate, % (95% CI)	Events/Patients	Estimate, % (95% CI)
CI = confidence interval; R0 = completely excised with negative microscopic margins; R1 = grossly excised but with positive microscopic margins; R2 = less than complete gross excision.
Low	26/222	88.9 (84.0–93.8)	10/222	96.2 (93.2–99.2)
Intermediate	84/227	65.0 (58.2–71.8)	55/227	79.2 (73.4–85.0)
High	63/80	21.2 (11.4–31.1)	52/80	35.5 (23.6–47.4)
Surgical Margin
R0	44/252	83.6 (78.3–89.0)	22/252	92.8 (89.1–96.5)
R1	29/81	66.2 (54.8–77.5)	17/81	79.7 (70.0–89.5)
R2	100/196	49.2 (41.4–57.0)	78/196	62.7 (55.2–70.3)

The COG ARST0332 trial was a risk-based stratification study. Overall, local control after radiation therapy was as follows: R0, 106 of 109 patients (97%); R1, 51 of 60 patients (85%); and R2/unresectable, 2 of 6 patients (33%). Local recurrence predictors included extent of delayed resection (P < .001), imaging response before delayed surgery (P < .001), histological subtype (P < .001), and no radiation therapy (P = .046). The 5-year EFS was significantly lower for patients unable to undergo R0 or R1 resection (P = .0003).[82]

Pediatric patients with unresected localized NRSTS have a poor outcome. Only about one-third of patients treated with multimodality therapy remain disease free.[73,83]; [84,85][Level of evidence C1] In an Italian review of 30 patients with NRSTS at visceral sites, only ten patients survived at 5 years. Unfavorable prognostic factors included inability to achieve complete resection, large tumor size, tumor invasion, histological subtype, and lung-pleura sites.[86][Level of evidence C1]

Prognosis based on the European paediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG) NRSTS 2005 study

The EpSSG conducted a prospective trial for patients younger than 21 years with NRSTS. They reported an analysis of 206 patients with synovial sarcoma and 363 with adult-type NRSTS. Patients were treated according to assigned risk groups. For more information, see Figure 5.[87] With a median follow-up of 80 months (interquartile range, 54.3–111.3) for the 467 surviving patients, the 5-year EFS rate was 73.7% (95% CI, 69.7%–77.2%), and the OS rate was 83.8% (95% CI, 80.3%–86.7%). The survival by treatment groups are shown in Table 4.[87]

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Table 4. Survival Outcomes by Treatment Groups in the EpSSG NRSTS 2005 Study

Treatment Group	5-Year Event-Free Survival Rate (95% CI)	5-Year Overall Survival Rate (95% CI)	Local Recurrence Rate
CI = confidence interval; EpSSG = European paediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group; NRSTS = nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas.
Surgery alone	91.4% (87.0%–94.4%)	98.1% (95.0%–99.3%)	7.6% (19/250)
Adjuvant radiation therapy alone (n = 17)	75.5% (46.9%–90.1%)	88.2% (60.6%–96.9%)	6.7% (1/15)
Adjuvant chemotherapy ± radiation therapy (n = 93)	65.6% (54.8%–74.5%)	75.8% (65.3%–83.5%)	10.8% (7/65)
Neoadjuvant chemotherapy ± radiation therapy (n = 209)	56.4% (49.3%–63.0%)	70.4% (63.3%–76.4%)	14.2% (16/113)

Treatment failures specifically for the neoadjuvant therapy treatment groups are shown in Table 5.[87]

Table 5. Treatment Failures for Specific Neoadjuvant Therapy Groups in the EpSSG NRSTS 2005 Studya

Treatment	Local Failure (No. of Patients)	Local + Metastatic Failure (No. of Patients)	Metastatic Failure (No. of Patients)
EpSSG = European paediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group; No. = number; NRSTS = nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas.
aAdapted from Ferrari et al.[87]
Radiation therapy alone (n = 21)	7	2	4
Delayed surgery followed by radiation therapy (n = 104)	16	6	8
Delayed surgery alone (n = 48)	8	3	8
No local treatment (n = 16)	12	4	0
Preoperative radiation therapy followed by delayed surgery (n = 20)	4	0	6

The authors concluded that adjuvant therapy (radiation therapy and chemotherapy) could safely be omitted in the group of patients assigned to surgery alone. Their criteria included the following:[87]

• Synovial cell: Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study (IRS) group I tumor size <5 cm.
• Adult-type NRSTS: IRS group I tumor size <5 cm, any grade.
• Adult-type NRSTS: IRS group I tumor size >5 cm, tumor grade I.
• Adult-type NRSTS: IRS group II any tumor size, tumor grade I.

They also concluded that improving the outcome for patients with high-risk, initially resected, adult-type NRSTS and those with initially unresected disease remains a major clinical challenge.[87]

In a pooled analysis from U.S. and European pediatric centers, outcomes were better for patients whose tumor removal procedure was deemed complete than for patients whose tumor removal was incomplete. Outcomes were better for patients who received radiation therapy than for patients who did not.[84][Level of evidence C1]

Because long-term morbidity must be minimized while disease-free survival is maximized, the ideal therapy for each patient must be carefully and individually determined using these prognostic factors before initiating therapy.[29,88–92]

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73. Spunt SL, Hill DA, Motosue AM, et al.: Clinical features and outcome of initially unresected nonmetastatic pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 20 (15): 3225-35, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
74. Spunt SL, Poquette CA, Hurt YS, et al.: Prognostic factors for children and adolescents with surgically resected nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of 121 patients treated at St Jude Children’s Research Hospital. J Clin Oncol 17 (12): 3697-705, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
75. Ferrari A, Casanova M, Collini P, et al.: Adult-type soft tissue sarcomas in pediatric-age patients: experience at the Istituto Nazionale Tumori in Milan. J Clin Oncol 23 (18): 4021-30, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
76. Brooks AD, Heslin MJ, Leung DH, et al.: Superficial extremity soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of prognostic factors. Ann Surg Oncol 5 (1): 41-7, 1998 Jan-Feb. [PUBMED Abstract]
77. Ferrari A, Miceli R, Meazza C, et al.: Soft tissue sarcomas of childhood and adolescence: the prognostic role of tumor size in relation to patient body size. J Clin Oncol 27 (3): 371-6, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
78. Rodeberg DA, Stoner JA, Garcia-Henriquez N, et al.: Tumor volume and patient weight as predictors of outcome in children with intermediate risk rhabdomyosarcoma: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Cancer 117 (11): 2541-50, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
79. Hong DS, DuBois SG, Kummar S, et al.: Larotrectinib in patients with TRK fusion-positive solid tumours: a pooled analysis of three phase 1/2 clinical trials. Lancet Oncol 21 (4): 531-540, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
80. Weiss SW, Goldblum JR: Enzinger and Weiss’s Soft Tissue Tumors. 4th ed. Mosby, 2001.
81. Spunt SL, Million L, Chi YY, et al.: A risk-based treatment strategy for non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 30 years (ARST0332): a Children’s Oncology Group prospective study. Lancet Oncol 21 (1): 145-161, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
82. Million L, Hayes-Jordan A, Chi YY, et al.: Local Control For High-Grade Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcoma Assigned to Radiation Therapy on ARST0332: A Report From the Childrens Oncology Group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 110 (3): 821-830, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
83. O’Sullivan B, Davis AM, Turcotte R, et al.: Preoperative versus postoperative radiotherapy in soft-tissue sarcoma of the limbs: a randomised trial. Lancet 359 (9325): 2235-41, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
84. Ferrari A, Miceli R, Rey A, et al.: Non-metastatic unresected paediatric non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas: results of a pooled analysis from United States and European groups. Eur J Cancer 47 (5): 724-31, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
85. Smith KB, Indelicato DJ, Knapik JA, et al.: Definitive radiotherapy for unresectable pediatric and young adult nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (2): 247-51, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
86. Ferrari A, Magni C, Bergamaschi L, et al.: Pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas arising at visceral sites. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (9): , 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
87. Ferrari A, van Noesel MM, Brennan B, et al.: Paediatric non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas: the prospective NRSTS 2005 study by the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG). Lancet Child Adolesc Health 5 (8): 546-558, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
88. Dillon PW, Whalen TV, Azizkhan RG, et al.: Neonatal soft tissue sarcomas: the influence of pathology on treatment and survival. Children’s Cancer Group Surgical Committee. J Pediatr Surg 30 (7): 1038-41, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
89. Pappo AS, Fontanesi J, Luo X, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the St Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience. J Clin Oncol 12 (11): 2360-6, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
90. Marcus KC, Grier HE, Shamberger RC, et al.: Childhood soft tissue sarcoma: a 20-year experience. J Pediatr 131 (4): 603-7, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
91. Pratt CB, Pappo AS, Gieser P, et al.: Role of adjuvant chemotherapy in the treatment of surgically resected pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas: A Pediatric Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1219, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
92. Pratt CB, Maurer HM, Gieser P, et al.: Treatment of unresectable or metastatic pediatric soft tissue sarcomas with surgery, irradiation, and chemotherapy: a Pediatric Oncology Group study. Med Pediatr Oncol 30 (4): 201-9, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. WHO Classification of Tumours Editorial Board: WHO Classification of Tumours. Volume 3: Soft Tissue and Bone Tumours. 5th ed., IARC Press, 2020.
2. Steelman C, Katzenstein H, Parham D, et al.: Unusual presentation of congenital infantile fibrosarcoma in seven infants with molecular-genetic analysis. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 30 (5): 329-37, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Evans HL: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: a clinicopathologic study of 33 cases with long-term follow-up. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (10): 1450-62, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Antonescu CR: Emerging soft tissue tumors with kinase fusions: An overview of the recent literature with an emphasis on diagnostic criteria. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 59 (8): 437-444, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Ortiz MV, Gerdemann U, Raju SG, et al.: Activity of the Highly Specific RET Inhibitor Selpercatinib (LOXO-292) in Pediatric Patients With Tumors Harboring RET Gene Alterations. JCO Precis Oncol 4: , 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]

Assessment of disease extent has an important role in predicting the clinical outcome and determining the most effective therapy for pediatric soft tissue sarcomas. As yet, there is no well-accepted assessment system that is applicable to all childhood sarcomas. The system from the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) that is used for adults has not been validated in pediatric studies.

No standardized staging system for pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas (NRSTS) exists, but two systems are currently used to assess disease extent:[1]

References

1. American Joint Committee on Cancer: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 6th ed. Springer, 2002.
2. Maurer HM, Beltangady M, Gehan EA, et al.: The Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study-I. A final report. Cancer 61 (2): 209-20, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. O’Sullivan B, Maki RG, Agulnik M, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma of the head and neck. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer; 2017, pp 499-505.
4. Yoon SS, Maki RG, Asare EA, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma of the trunk and extremities. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer; 2017, pp 507-15.
5. Raut CP, Maki RG, Baldini EH, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma of the abdomen and thoracic visceral organs. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer; 2017, pp 517-21.
6. Pollock RE, Maki RG, Baldini EH, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma of the retroperitoneum. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer; 2017, pp 531-7.
7. Maki RG, Folpe AL, Guadagnolo BA, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma – unusual histologies and sites. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer; 2017, pp 539-45.
8. Waxweiler TV, Rusthoven CG, Proper MS, et al.: Non-Rhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcomas in Children: A Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Analysis Validating COG Risk Stratifications. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 92 (2): 339-48, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Parham DM, Webber BL, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas of childhood: formulation of a simplified system for grading. Mod Pathol 8 (7): 705-10, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Recommendations for the reporting of soft tissue sarcomas. Association of Directors of Anatomic and Surgical Pathology. Mod Pathol 11 (12): 1257-61, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Skytting B, Meis-Kindblom JM, Larsson O, et al.: Synovial sarcoma–identification of favorable and unfavorable histologic types: a Scandinavian sarcoma group study of 104 cases. Acta Orthop Scand 70 (6): 543-54, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Rao BN: Nonrhabdomyosarcoma in children: prognostic factors influencing survival. Semin Surg Oncol 9 (6): 524-31, 1993 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Pisters PW, Leung DH, Woodruff J, et al.: Analysis of prognostic factors in 1,041 patients with localized soft tissue sarcomas of the extremities. J Clin Oncol 14 (5): 1679-89, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Coindre JM, Terrier P, Bui NB, et al.: Prognostic factors in adult patients with locally controlled soft tissue sarcoma. A study of 546 patients from the French Federation of Cancer Centers Sarcoma Group. J Clin Oncol 14 (3): 869-77, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Pappo AS, Fontanesi J, Luo X, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the St Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience. J Clin Oncol 12 (11): 2360-6, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Pratt CB, Maurer HM, Gieser P, et al.: Treatment of unresectable or metastatic pediatric soft tissue sarcomas with surgery, irradiation, and chemotherapy: a Pediatric Oncology Group study. Med Pediatr Oncol 30 (4): 201-9, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Khoury JD, Coffin CM, Spunt SL, et al.: Grading of nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma in children and adolescents: a comparison of parameters used for the Fédération Nationale des Centers de Lutte Contre le Cancer and Pediatric Oncology Group Systems. Cancer 116 (9): 2266-74, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Spunt SL, Million L, Chi YY, et al.: A risk-based treatment strategy for non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 30 years (ARST0332): a Children’s Oncology Group prospective study. Lancet Oncol 21 (1): 145-161, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Coindre JM, Terrier P, Guillou L, et al.: Predictive value of grade for metastasis development in the main histologic types of adult soft tissue sarcomas: a study of 1240 patients from the French Federation of Cancer Centers Sarcoma Group. Cancer 91 (10): 1914-26, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Guillou L, Coindre JM, Bonichon F, et al.: Comparative study of the National Cancer Institute and French Federation of Cancer Centers Sarcoma Group grading systems in a population of 410 adult patients with soft tissue sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 15 (1): 350-62, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]

Because of the rarity of pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas (NRSTS), treatment should be coordinated by a multidisciplinary team that includes oncologists (pediatric or medical), pathologists, surgeons, and radiation oncologists for all children, adolescents, and young adults with these tumors. In addition, to better define the tumors’ natural history and response to therapy, entry into national or institutional treatment protocols should be considered for children with rare neoplasms. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

The Children’s Oncology Group (COG) performed a prospective nonrandomized trial (ARST0332 [NCT00346164]) for patients with soft tissue sarcomas.[1]

Surgical resection of the primary tumor was classified as follows:

Patients were assigned to one of the following three risk groups:

The treatment groups were as follows:

Chemotherapy included six cycles of intravenous (IV) ifosfamide (3 g/m2 per dose) on days 1 through 3 and five cycles of IV doxorubicin (37.5 mg/m2 per dose) on days 1 to 2 every 3 weeks, with the sequence adjusted based on timing of surgery or radiation therapy.

The analysis included 529 evaluable patients: low risk (n = 222), intermediate risk (n = 227), and high risk (n = 80). Patients underwent surgery alone (n = 205), radiation therapy (n = 17), chemoradiation therapy (n = 111), and neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (n = 196).

At a median follow-up of 6.5 years (interquartile range [IQR], 4.9–7.9), the 5-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) rates, by risk group, were as follows:

The authors concluded that pretreatment clinical features can be used to effectively define treatment failure risk and stratify young patients with NRSTS for risk-adapted therapy. Most low-risk patients can be cured without adjuvant therapy, avoiding known long-term treatment complications. Survival remains suboptimal for intermediate-risk and high-risk patients, and novel therapies are needed for these patients.

References

1. Spunt SL, Million L, Chi YY, et al.: A risk-based treatment strategy for non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 30 years (ARST0332): a Children’s Oncology Group prospective study. Lancet Oncol 21 (1): 145-161, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Douglass DP, Coffin CM, Randall RL, et al.: Clinical features and outcomes of young patients with low-grade non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas treated with a risk-based strategy: A report from Children’s Oncology Group study ARST0332. Pediatr Blood Cancer 71 (8): e31062, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Million L, Hayes-Jordan A, Chi YY, et al.: Local Control For High-Grade Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcoma Assigned to Radiation Therapy on ARST0332: A Report From the Childrens Oncology Group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 110 (3): 821-830, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Sugiura H, Takahashi M, Katagiri H, et al.: Additional wide resection of malignant soft tissue tumors. Clin Orthop (394): 201-10, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Cecchetto G, Guglielmi M, Inserra A, et al.: Primary re-excision: the Italian experience in patients with localized soft-tissue sarcomas. Pediatr Surg Int 17 (7): 532-4, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Chui CH, Spunt SL, Liu T, et al.: Is reexcision in pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma necessary after an initial unplanned resection? J Pediatr Surg 37 (10): 1424-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Paulino AC, Ritchie J, Wen BC: The value of postoperative radiotherapy in childhood nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 43 (5): 587-93, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Kaste SC, Hill A, Conley L, et al.: Magnetic resonance imaging after incomplete resection of soft tissue sarcoma. Clin Orthop (397): 204-11, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Chandrasekar CR, Wafa H, Grimer RJ, et al.: The effect of an unplanned excision of a soft-tissue sarcoma on prognosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 90 (2): 203-8, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Daigeler A, Kuhnen C, Moritz R, et al.: Lymph node metastases in soft tissue sarcomas: a single center analysis of 1,597 patients. Langenbecks Arch Surg 394 (2): 321-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Mazeron JJ, Suit HD: Lymph nodes as sites of metastases from sarcomas of soft tissue. Cancer 60 (8): 1800-8, 1987. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Neville HL, Andrassy RJ, Lally KP, et al.: Lymphatic mapping with sentinel node biopsy in pediatric patients. J Pediatr Surg 35 (6): 961-4, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Neville HL, Raney RB, Andrassy RJ, et al.: Multidisciplinary management of pediatric soft-tissue sarcoma. Oncology (Huntingt) 14 (10): 1471-81; discussion 1482-6, 1489-90, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Kayton ML, Delgado R, Busam K, et al.: Experience with 31 sentinel lymph node biopsies for sarcomas and carcinomas in pediatric patients. Cancer 112 (9): 2052-9, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Dall’Igna P, De Corti F, Alaggio R, et al.: Sentinel node biopsy in pediatric patients: the experience in a single institution. Eur J Pediatr Surg 24 (6): 482-7, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Parida L, Morrisson GT, Shammas A, et al.: Role of lymphoscintigraphy and sentinel lymph node biopsy in the management of pediatric melanoma and sarcoma. Pediatr Surg Int 28 (6): 571-8, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Alcorn KM, Deans KJ, Congeni A, et al.: Sentinel lymph node biopsy in pediatric soft tissue sarcoma patients: utility and concordance with imaging. J Pediatr Surg 48 (9): 1903-6, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Haas RL, Gronchi A, van de Sande MAJ, et al.: Perioperative Management of Extremity Soft Tissue Sarcomas. J Clin Oncol 36 (2): 118-124, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Crompton JG, Ogura K, Bernthal NM, et al.: Local Control of Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcomas. J Clin Oncol 36 (2): 111-117, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Nussbaum DP, Rushing CN, Lane WO, et al.: Preoperative or postoperative radiotherapy versus surgery alone for retroperitoneal sarcoma: a case-control, propensity score-matched analysis of a nationwide clinical oncology database. Lancet Oncol 17 (7): 966-975, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Merchant TE, Parsh N, del Valle PL, et al.: Brachytherapy for pediatric soft-tissue sarcoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 46 (2): 427-32, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Schomberg PJ, Gunderson LL, Moir CR, et al.: Intraoperative electron irradiation in the management of pediatric malignancies. Cancer 79 (11): 2251-6, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Nag S, Shasha D, Janjan N, et al.: The American Brachytherapy Society recommendations for brachytherapy of soft tissue sarcomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 49 (4): 1033-43, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Viani GA, Novaes PE, Jacinto AA, et al.: High-dose-rate brachytherapy for soft tissue sarcoma in children: a single institution experience. Radiat Oncol 3: 9, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Virkus WW, Mollabashy A, Reith JD, et al.: Preoperative radiotherapy in the treatment of soft tissue sarcomas. Clin Orthop (397): 177-89, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Zagars GK, Ballo MT, Pisters PW, et al.: Preoperative vs. postoperative radiation therapy for soft tissue sarcoma: a retrospective comparative evaluation of disease outcome. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 56 (2): 482-8, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Dickie C, Parent A, Griffin AM, et al.: The value of adaptive preoperative radiotherapy in management of soft tissue sarcoma. Radiother Oncol 122 (3): 458-463, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. O’Sullivan B, Davis AM, Turcotte R, et al.: Preoperative versus postoperative radiotherapy in soft-tissue sarcoma of the limbs: a randomised trial. Lancet 359 (9325): 2235-41, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Davis AM, O’Sullivan B, Turcotte R, et al.: Late radiation morbidity following randomization to preoperative versus postoperative radiotherapy in extremity soft tissue sarcoma. Radiother Oncol 75 (1): 48-53, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Rao AD, Chen Q, Million L, et al.: Preoperative Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy Compared to Three-Dimensional Conformal Radiation Therapy for High-Grade Extremity Sarcomas in Children: Analysis of the Children’s Oncology Group Study ARST0332. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 103 (1): 38-44, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Seddon B, Grange FL, Simões R, et al.: The IMRiS Trial: A Phase 2 Study of Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy in Extremity Soft Tissue Sarcoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 120 (4): 978-989, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. Marcus KC, Grier HE, Shamberger RC, et al.: Childhood soft tissue sarcoma: a 20-year experience. J Pediatr 131 (4): 603-7, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Delaney TF, Kepka L, Goldberg SI, et al.: Radiation therapy for control of soft-tissue sarcomas resected with positive margins. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 67 (5): 1460-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. Blakely ML, Spurbeck WW, Pappo AS, et al.: The impact of margin of resection on outcome in pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. J Pediatr Surg 34 (5): 672-5, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Skytting B: Synovial sarcoma. A Scandinavian Sarcoma Group project. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl 291: 1-28, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. Hua C, Gray JM, Merchant TE, et al.: Treatment planning and delivery of external beam radiotherapy for pediatric sarcoma: the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 70 (5): 1598-606, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Pratt CB, Pappo AS, Gieser P, et al.: Role of adjuvant chemotherapy in the treatment of surgically resected pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas: A Pediatric Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1219, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
38. Karakousis CP, Driscoll DL: Treatment and local control of primary extremity soft tissue sarcomas. J Surg Oncol 71 (3): 155-61, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
39. Zagars GK, Ballo MT, Pisters PW, et al.: Prognostic factors for disease-specific survival after first relapse of soft-tissue sarcoma: analysis of 402 patients with disease relapse after initial conservative surgery and radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 57 (3): 739-47, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Raut CP, Miceli R, Strauss DC, et al.: External validation of a multi-institutional retroperitoneal sarcoma nomogram. Cancer 122 (9): 1417-24, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Baldini EH, Wang D, Haas RL, et al.: Treatment Guidelines for Preoperative Radiation Therapy for Retroperitoneal Sarcoma: Preliminary Consensus of an International Expert Panel. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 92 (3): 602-12, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Bishop AJ, Zagars GK, Torres KE, et al.: Combined Modality Management of Retroperitoneal Sarcomas: A Single-Institution Series of 121 Patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 93 (1): 158-65, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
43. Al Yami A, Griffin AM, Ferguson PC, et al.: Positive surgical margins in soft tissue sarcoma treated with preoperative radiation: is a postoperative boost necessary? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 77 (4): 1191-7, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
44. Wang D, Bosch W, Kirsch DG, et al.: Variation in the gross tumor volume and clinical target volume for preoperative radiotherapy of primary large high-grade soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 81 (5): e775-80, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
45. Bahig H, Roberge D, Bosch W, et al.: Agreement among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists in contouring suspicious peritumoral edema for preoperative radiation therapy of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86 (2): 298-303, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
46. Ferrari A: Role of chemotherapy in pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 8 (6): 929-38, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
47. Adjuvant chemotherapy for localised resectable soft-tissue sarcoma of adults: meta-analysis of individual data. Sarcoma Meta-analysis Collaboration. Lancet 350 (9092): 1647-54, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
48. Woll PJ, Reichardt P, Le Cesne A, et al.: Adjuvant chemotherapy with doxorubicin, ifosfamide, and lenograstim for resected soft-tissue sarcoma (EORTC 62931): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 13 (10): 1045-54, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
49. Demetri GD, Chawla SP, Ray-Coquard I, et al.: Results of an international randomized phase III trial of the mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor ridaforolimus versus placebo to control metastatic sarcomas in patients after benefit from prior chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 31 (19): 2485-92, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
50. van der Graaf WT, Blay JY, Chawla SP, et al.: Pazopanib for metastatic soft-tissue sarcoma (PALETTE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet 379 (9829): 1879-86, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
51. Mir O, Brodowicz T, Italiano A, et al.: Safety and efficacy of regorafenib in patients with advanced soft tissue sarcoma (REGOSARC): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 17 (12): 1732-1742, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
52. Weiss AR, Chen YL, Scharschmidt TJ, et al.: Pathological response in children and adults with large unresected intermediate-grade or high-grade soft tissue sarcoma receiving preoperative chemoradiotherapy with or without pazopanib (ARST1321): a multicentre, randomised, open-label, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 21 (8): 1110-1122, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
53. Kayton ML, Weiss AR, Xue W, et al.: Neoadjuvant pazopanib in nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas (ARST1321): A report of major wound complications from the Children’s Oncology Group and NRG Oncology. J Surg Oncol 127 (5): 871-881, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
54. Weiss AR, Chen YL, Scharschmidt TJ, et al.: Outcomes After Preoperative Chemoradiation With or Without Pazopanib in Non-Rhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcoma: A Report From Children’s Oncology Group and NRG Oncology. J Clin Oncol 41 (31): 4842-4848, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Multidisciplinary evaluation in pediatric cancer centers that have surgical and radiotherapeutic expertise is of critical importance to ensure the best clinical outcome for these patients. Although surgery with or without radiation therapy can be curative for a significant proportion of patients, the addition of chemotherapy might benefit subsets of children with the disease. Therefore, enrollment in clinical trials is encouraged. Clinical trials for children and adolescents with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Many therapeutic strategies for children and adolescents with soft tissue tumors are similar to those for adult patients, although there are important differences. For example, the biology of the neoplasm in pediatric patients may differ dramatically from that of the adult lesion. Additionally, limb-sparing procedures are more difficult to perform in pediatric patients. The morbidity associated with radiation therapy, particularly in infants and young children, may be much greater than that observed in adults.[3]

Improved outcomes with multimodality therapy in adults and children with soft tissue sarcomas over the past 20 years have caused increasing concern about the potential long-term side effects of this therapy in children. To maximize tumor control and minimize long-term morbidity, treatment must be individualized for children and adolescents with nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcoma. These patients should be enrolled in prospective studies that accurately assess any potential complications.[4]

References

1. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Suit H, Spiro I: Radiation as a therapeutic modality in sarcomas of the soft tissue. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 9 (4): 733-46, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Hawkins DS, Black JO, Orbach D, et al.: Nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas. In: Blaney SM, Helman LJ, Adamson PC, eds.: Pizzo and Poplack’s Pediatric Oncology. 8th ed. Wolters Kluwer, 2020, pp 721-46.

Adipocytic tumors account for less than 10% of soft tissue lesions in patients younger than 20 years. The most common adipocytic tumors in children are lipomas and lipoblastomas.

Table 11 summarizes the adipocytic neoplasms seen in pediatric patients and includes information about their corresponding clinico-pathological and molecular features.[1]

References

1. Putra J, Al-Ibraheemi A: Adipocytic tumors in Children: A contemporary review. Semin Diagn Pathol 36 (2): 95-104, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Coffin CM, Alaggio R: Adipose and myxoid tumors of childhood and adolescence. Pediatr Dev Pathol 15 (1 Suppl): 239-54, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Dehner LP, Gru AA: Nonepithelial Tumors and Tumor-like Lesions of the Skin and Subcutis in Children. Pediatr Dev Pathol 21 (2): 150-207, 2018 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Yozu M, Symmans P, Dray M, et al.: Muir-Torre syndrome-associated pleomorphic liposarcoma arising in a previous radiation field. Virchows Arch 462 (3): 355-60, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Palit A, Inamadar AC: Circumferential skin folds in a child: a case of Michelin tire baby syndrome. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 73 (1): 49-51, 2007 Jan-Feb. [PUBMED Abstract]
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15. Han J, Murthy R, Wood B, et al.: ER stress signalling through eIF2α and CHOP, but not IRE1α, attenuates adipogenesis in mice. Diabetologia 56 (4): 911-24, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
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18. Creytens D, Folpe AL, Koelsche C, et al.: Myxoid pleomorphic liposarcoma-a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, molecular genetic and epigenetic study of 12 cases, suggesting a possible relationship with conventional pleomorphic liposarcoma. Mod Pathol 34 (11): 2043-2049, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
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26. Bahig H, Roberge D, Bosch W, et al.: Agreement among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists in contouring suspicious peritumoral edema for preoperative radiation therapy of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86 (2): 298-303, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
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Chondro-osseous tumors have several subtypes, including the following:

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6. Kawaguchi S, Weiss I, Lin PP, et al.: Radiation therapy is associated with fewer recurrences in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. Clin Orthop Relat Res 472 (3): 856-64, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
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12. Jour G, Wang L, Middha S, et al.: The molecular landscape of extraskeletal osteosarcoma: A clinicopathological and molecular biomarker study. J Pathol Clin Res 2 (1): 9-20, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
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Fibroblastic and myofibroblastic tumors have several subtypes, including the following:

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68. Favini F, Resti AG, Collini P, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor of the conjunctiva: response to chemotherapy with low-dose methotrexate and vinorelbine. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (3): 483-5, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
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72. Mossé YP, Lim MS, Voss SD, et al.: Safety and activity of crizotinib for paediatric patients with refractory solid tumours or anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a Children’s Oncology Group phase 1 consortium study. Lancet Oncol 14 (6): 472-80, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
73. Gaudichon J, Jeanne-Pasquier C, Deparis M, et al.: Complete and Repeated Response of a Metastatic ALK-rearranged Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor to Crizotinib in a Teenage Girl. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 38 (4): 308-11, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
74. Mossé YP, Voss SD, Lim MS, et al.: Targeting ALK With Crizotinib in Pediatric Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma and Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor: A Children’s Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 35 (28): 3215-3221, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
75. Butrynski JE, D’Adamo DR, Hornick JL, et al.: Crizotinib in ALK-rearranged inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor. N Engl J Med 363 (18): 1727-33, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
76. Nakano K: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors: recent progress and future of targeted therapy. Jpn J Clin Oncol 53 (10): 885-892, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
77. Brivio E, Zwaan CM: ALK inhibition in two emblematic cases of pediatric inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor: Efficacy and side effects. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (5): e27645, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
78. Fischer M, Moreno L, Ziegler DS, et al.: Ceritinib in paediatric patients with anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive malignancies: an open-label, multicentre, phase 1, dose-escalation and dose-expansion study. Lancet Oncol 22 (12): 1764-1776, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
79. Nishio M, Murakami H, Horiike A, et al.: Phase I Study of Ceritinib (LDK378) in Japanese Patients with Advanced, Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase-Rearranged Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer or Other Tumors. J Thorac Oncol 10 (7): 1058-66, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
80. Fujiki T, Sakai Y, Ikawa Y, et al.: Pediatric inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor of the bladder with ALK-FN1 fusion successfully treated by alectinib. Pediatr Blood Cancer 70 (4): e30172, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
81. Gounder MM, Agaram NP, Trabucco SE, et al.: Clinical genomic profiling in the management of patients with soft tissue and bone sarcoma. Nat Commun 13 (1): 3406, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
82. Sulkowski JP, Raval MV, Browne M: Margin status and multimodal therapy in infantile fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Surg Int 29 (8): 771-6, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
83. Hirschfeld R, Welch JJG, Harrison DJ, et al.: Two cases of humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy complicating infantile fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (10): , 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
84. Kao YC, Fletcher CDM, Alaggio R, et al.: Recurrent BRAF Gene Fusions in a Subset of Pediatric Spindle Cell Sarcomas: Expanding the Genetic Spectrum of Tumors With Overlapping Features With Infantile Fibrosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 42 (1): 28-38, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
85. Wegert J, Vokuhl C, Collord G, et al.: Recurrent intragenic rearrangements of EGFR and BRAF in soft tissue tumors of infants. Nat Commun 9 (1): 2378, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
86. Tan SY, Al-Ibraheemi A, Ahrens WA, et al.: ALK rearrangements in infantile fibrosarcoma-like spindle cell tumours of soft tissue and kidney. Histopathology 80 (4): 698-707, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
87. Motta M, Barresi S, Pizzi S, et al.: RAF1 gene fusions are recurrent driver events in infantile fibrosarcoma-like mesenchymal tumors. J Pathol 263 (2): 166-177, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
88. Orbach D, Rey A, Cecchetto G, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma: management based on the European experience. J Clin Oncol 28 (2): 318-23, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
89. Orbach D, Brennan B, De Paoli A, et al.: Conservative strategy in infantile fibrosarcoma is possible: The European paediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group experience. Eur J Cancer 57: 1-9, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
90. Hawkins DS, Black JO, Orbach D, et al.: Nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas. In: Blaney SM, Helman LJ, Adamson PC, eds.: Pizzo and Poplack’s Pediatric Oncology. 8th ed. Wolters Kluwer, 2020, pp 721-46.
91. Loh ML, Ahn P, Perez-Atayde AR, et al.: Treatment of infantile fibrosarcoma with chemotherapy and surgery: results from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Children’s Hospital, Boston. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 24 (9): 722-6, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
92. Akyüz C, Küpeli S, Varan A, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma: retrospective analysis of eleven patients. Tumori 97 (2): 166-9, 2011 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
93. Gallego S, Pericas N, Barber I, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma of the retroperitoneum: a site of unfavorable prognosis? Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 (5): 451-3, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
94. Parida L, Fernandez-Pineda I, Uffman JK, et al.: Clinical management of infantile fibrosarcoma: a retrospective single-institution review. Pediatr Surg Int 29 (7): 703-8, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
95. Laetsch TW, DuBois SG, Mascarenhas L, et al.: Larotrectinib for paediatric solid tumours harbouring NTRK gene fusions: phase 1 results from a multicentre, open-label, phase 1/2 study. Lancet Oncol 19 (5): 705-714, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
96. Kummar S, Lassen UN: TRK Inhibition: A New Tumor-Agnostic Treatment Strategy. Target Oncol 13 (5): 545-556, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
97. Drilon A, Laetsch TW, Kummar S, et al.: Efficacy of Larotrectinib in TRK Fusion-Positive Cancers in Adults and Children. N Engl J Med 378 (8): 731-739, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
98. DuBois SG, Laetsch TW, Federman N, et al.: The use of neoadjuvant larotrectinib in the management of children with locally advanced TRK fusion sarcomas. Cancer 124 (21): 4241-4247, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
99. Hong DS, DuBois SG, Kummar S, et al.: Larotrectinib in patients with TRK fusion-positive solid tumours: a pooled analysis of three phase 1/2 clinical trials. Lancet Oncol 21 (4): 531-540, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
100. Laetsch TW, Voss S, Ludwig K, et al.: Larotrectinib for Newly Diagnosed Infantile Fibrosarcoma and Other Pediatric NTRK Fusion-Positive Solid Tumors (Children’s Oncology Group ADVL1823). J Clin Oncol 43 (10): 1188-1197, 2025. [PUBMED Abstract]
101. Drilon A, Nagasubramanian R, Blake JF, et al.: A Next-Generation TRK Kinase Inhibitor Overcomes Acquired Resistance to Prior TRK Kinase Inhibition in Patients with TRK Fusion-Positive Solid Tumors. Cancer Discov 7 (9): 963-972, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
102. Yanagisawa R, Noguchi M, Fujita K, et al.: Preoperative Treatment With Pazopanib in a Case of Chemotherapy-Resistant Infantile Fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (2): 348-51, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
103. Evans HL: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: a clinicopathologic study of 33 cases with long-term follow-up. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (10): 1450-62, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
104. Scheer M, Vokuhl C, Veit-Friedrich I, et al.: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: A report of the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (2): e28009, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
105. Fletcher CDM, Bridge JA, Hogendoorn P, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Soft Tissue and Bone. 4th ed. IARC Press, 2013.
106. Sargar K, Kao SC, Spunt SL, et al.: MRI and CT of Low-Grade Fibromyxoid Sarcoma in Children: A Report From Children’s Oncology Group Study ARST0332. AJR Am J Roentgenol 205 (2): 414-20, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
107. Guillou L, Benhattar J, Gengler C, et al.: Translocation-positive low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: clinicopathologic and molecular analysis of a series expanding the morphologic spectrum and suggesting potential relationship to sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma: a study from the French Sarcoma Group. Am J Surg Pathol 31 (9): 1387-402, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
108. Mohamed M, Fisher C, Thway K: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: Clinical, morphologic and genetic features. Ann Diagn Pathol 28: 60-67, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
109. O’Sullivan MJ, Sirgi KE, Dehner LP: Low-grade fibrosarcoma (hyalinizing spindle cell tumor with giant rosettes) with pulmonary metastases at presentation: case report and review of the literature. Int J Surg Pathol 10 (3): 211-6, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
110. Folpe AL, Lane KL, Paull G, et al.: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma and hyalinizing spindle cell tumor with giant rosettes: a clinicopathologic study of 73 cases supporting their identity and assessing the impact of high-grade areas. Am J Surg Pathol 24 (10): 1353-60, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
111. Giani C, Denu RA, Ljevar S, et al.: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma and sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma, outcome of advanced disease: retrospective study from the Ultra-Rare Sarcoma Working Group. ESMO Open 9 (9): 103689, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
112. Maretty-Nielsen K, Baerentzen S, Keller J, et al.: Low-Grade Fibromyxoid Sarcoma: Incidence, Treatment Strategy of Metastases, and Clinical Significance of the FUS Gene. Sarcoma 2013: 256280, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
113. Prieto-Granada C, Zhang L, Chen HW, et al.: A genetic dichotomy between pure sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma (SEF) and hybrid SEF/low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: a pathologic and molecular study of 18 cases. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 54 (1): 28-38, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
114. Arbajian E, Puls F, Antonescu CR, et al.: In-depth Genetic Analysis of Sclerosing Epithelioid Fibrosarcoma Reveals Recurrent Genomic Alterations and Potential Treatment Targets. Clin Cancer Res 23 (23): 7426-7434, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
115. Arbajian E, Puls F, Magnusson L, et al.: Recurrent EWSR1-CREB3L1 gene fusions in sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 38 (6): 801-8, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
116. Dewaele B, Libbrecht L, Levy G, et al.: A novel EWS-CREB3L3 gene fusion in a mesenteric sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 56 (9): 695-699, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
117. Porteus C, Gan Q, Gong Y, et al.: Sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma: cytologic characterization with histologic, immunohistologic, molecular, and clinical correlation of 8 cases. J Am Soc Cytopathol 9 (6): 513-519, 2020 Nov – Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
118. Puls F, Agaimy A, Flucke U, et al.: Recurrent Fusions Between YAP1 and KMT2A in Morphologically Distinct Neoplasms Within the Spectrum of Low-grade Fibromyxoid Sarcoma and Sclerosing Epithelioid Fibrosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 44 (5): 594-606, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
119. Warmke LM, Meis JM: Sclerosing Epithelioid Fibrosarcoma: A Distinct Sarcoma With Aggressive Features. Am J Surg Pathol 45 (3): 317-328, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
120. Chew W, Benson C, Thway K, et al.: Clinical Characteristics and efficacy of chemotherapy in sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma. Med Oncol 35 (11): 138, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]

Skeletal muscle tumors have several subtypes, including the following:

References

1. Huang SC, Alaggio R, Sung YS, et al.: Frequent HRAS Mutations in Malignant Ectomesenchymoma: Overlapping Genetic Abnormalities With Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 40 (7): 876-85, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Griffin BB, Chou PM, George D, et al.: Malignant Ectomesenchymoma: Series Analysis of a Histologically and Genetically Heterogeneous Tumor. Int J Surg Pathol 26 (3): 200-212, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Dantonello TM, Leuschner I, Vokuhl C, et al.: Malignant ectomesenchymoma in children and adolescents: report from the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (2): 224-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Milano GM, Orbach D, Casanova M, et al.: Malignant ectomesenchymoma in children: The European pediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 70 (2): e30116, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Pollock BH, Jenson HB, Leach CT, et al.: Risk factors for pediatric human immunodeficiency virus-related malignancy. JAMA 289 (18): 2393-9, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Kleinerman RA, Tucker MA, Abramson DH, et al.: Risk of soft tissue sarcomas by individual subtype in survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 99 (1): 24-31, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Samuels BL, Chawla S, Patel S, et al.: Clinical outcomes and safety with trabectedin therapy in patients with advanced soft tissue sarcomas following failure of prior chemotherapy: results of a worldwide expanded access program study. Ann Oncol 24 (6): 1703-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Demetri GD, von Mehren M, Jones RL, et al.: Efficacy and Safety of Trabectedin or Dacarbazine for Metastatic Liposarcoma or Leiomyosarcoma After Failure of Conventional Chemotherapy: Results of a Phase III Randomized Multicenter Clinical Trial. J Clin Oncol 34 (8): 786-93, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Pautier P, Italiano A, Piperno-Neumann S, et al.: Doxorubicin-Trabectedin with Trabectedin Maintenance in Leiomyosarcoma. N Engl J Med 391 (9): 789-799, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Enzinger FM, Zhang RY: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor presenting in children and young adults. An analysis of 65 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 12 (11): 818-26, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Black J, Coffin CM, Dehner LP: Fibrohistiocytic tumors and related neoplasms in children and adolescents. Pediatr Dev Pathol 15 (1 Suppl): 181-210, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Moosavi C, Jha P, Fanburg-Smith JC: An update on plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor and addition of 66 new cases from the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, in honor of Franz M. Enzinger, MD. Ann Diagn Pathol 11 (5): 313-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Billings SD, Folpe AL: Cutaneous and subcutaneous fibrohistiocytic tumors of intermediate malignancy: an update. Am J Dermatopathol 26 (2): 141-55, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Remstein ED, Arndt CA, Nascimento AG: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor: clinicopathologic analysis of 22 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 23 (6): 662-70, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Salomao DR, Nascimento AG: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor with systemic metastases: a case report. Am J Surg Pathol 21 (4): 469-76, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Redlich GC, Montgomery KD, Allgood GA, et al.: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor with a clonal cytogenetic anomaly. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 108 (2): 141-3, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Luzar B, Calonje E: Cutaneous fibrohistiocytic tumours – an update. Histopathology 56 (1): 148-65, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Peripheral nerve sheath tumors have several subtypes, including the following:

References

1. Carli M, Ferrari A, Mattke A, et al.: Pediatric malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: the Italian and German soft tissue sarcoma cooperative group. J Clin Oncol 23 (33): 8422-30, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
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3. Agresta L, Salloum R, Hummel TR, et al.: Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: Transformation in a patient with neurofibromatosis type 2. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (2): e27520, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Agaram NP, Wexler LH, Chi P, et al.: Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in children: A clinicopathologic and molecular study with parallels to the adult counterpart. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 62 (3): 131-138, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Zhang M, Wang Y, Jones S, et al.: Somatic mutations of SUZ12 in malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Nat Genet 46 (11): 1170-2, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Röhrich M, Koelsche C, Schrimpf D, et al.: Methylation-based classification of benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Acta Neuropathol 131 (6): 877-87, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Kaplan HG, Rostad S, Ross JS, et al.: Genomic Profiling in Patients With Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Reveals Multiple Pathways With Targetable Mutations. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 16 (8): 967-974, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Hagel C, Zils U, Peiper M, et al.: Histopathology and clinical outcome of NF1-associated vs. sporadic malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. J Neurooncol 82 (2): 187-92, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Zou C, Smith KD, Liu J, et al.: Clinical, pathological, and molecular variables predictive of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor outcome. Ann Surg 249 (6): 1014-22, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Okada K, Hasegawa T, Tajino T, et al.: Clinical relevance of pathological grades of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: a multi-institution TMTS study of 56 cases in Northern Japan. Ann Surg Oncol 14 (2): 597-604, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Amirian ES, Goodman JC, New P, et al.: Pediatric and adult malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: an analysis of data from the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program. J Neurooncol 116 (3): 609-16, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Valentin T, Le Cesne A, Ray-Coquard I, et al.: Management and prognosis of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: The experience of the French Sarcoma Group (GSF-GETO). Eur J Cancer 56: 77-84, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Høland M, Kolberg M, Danielsen SA, et al.: Inferior survival for patients with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors defined by aberrant TP53. Mod Pathol 31 (11): 1694-1707, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Krawczyk MA, Karpinsky G, Izycka-Swieszewska E, et al.: Immunohistochemical assessment of cyclin D1 and p53 is associated with survival in childhood malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. Cancer Biomark 24 (3): 351-361, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Akshintala S, Mallory NC, Lu Y, et al.: Outcome of Patients With Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Enrolled on Sarcoma Alliance for Research Through Collaboration (SARC) Phase II Trials. Oncologist 28 (5): 453-459, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Martin E, Coert JH, Flucke UE, et al.: Neurofibromatosis-associated malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in children have a worse prognosis: A nationwide cohort study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (4): e28138, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Meister MT, Scheer M, Hallmen E, et al.: Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in children, adolescents, and young adults: Treatment results of five Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS) trials and one registry. J Surg Oncol 122 (7): 1337-1347, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Bahig H, Roberge D, Bosch W, et al.: Agreement among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists in contouring suspicious peritumoral edema for preoperative radiation therapy of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86 (2): 298-303, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Baldini EH, Wang D, Haas RL, et al.: Treatment Guidelines for Preoperative Radiation Therapy for Retroperitoneal Sarcoma: Preliminary Consensus of an International Expert Panel. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 92 (3): 602-12, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Ferrari A, Bisogno G, Macaluso A, et al.: Soft-tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents with neurofibromatosis type 1. Cancer 109 (7): 1406-12, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. van Noesel MM, Orbach D, Brennan B, et al.: Outcome and prognostic factors in pediatric malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: An analysis of the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Group (EpSSG) NRSTS-2005 prospective study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (10): e27833, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Higham CS, Steinberg SM, Dombi E, et al.: SARC006: Phase II Trial of Chemotherapy in Sporadic and Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Associated Chemotherapy-Naive Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors. Sarcoma 2017: 8685638, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Bergamaschi L, Bisogno G, Manzitti C, et al.: Salvage rates and prognostic factors after relapse in children and adolescents with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (2): , 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Al-Ezzi E, Gounder M, Watson G, et al.: Selinexor, a First in Class, Nuclear Export Inhibitor for the Treatment of Advanced Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor. Oncologist 26 (4): e710-e714, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. WHO Classification of Tumours Editorial Board: WHO Classification of Tumours. Volume 3: Soft Tissue and Bone Tumours. 5th ed., IARC Press, 2020.
26. de Traux de Wardin H, Dermawan JK, Vanoli F, et al.: NF1-Driven Rhabdomyosarcoma Phenotypes: A Comparative Clinical and Molecular Study of NF1-Mutant Rhabdomyosarcoma and NF1-Associated Malignant Triton Tumor. JCO Precis Oncol 8: e2300597, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Schaefer IM, Fletcher CD, Hornick JL: Loss of H3K27 trimethylation distinguishes malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors from histologic mimics. Mod Pathol 29 (1): 4-13, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Hornick JL, Nielsen GP: Beyond “Triton”: Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors With Complete Heterologous Rhabdomyoblastic Differentiation Mimicking Spindle Cell Rhabdomyosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 43 (10): 1323-1330, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]

Pericytic (perivascular) tumors have several subtypes, including the following:

References

1. Rodriguez-Galindo C, Ramsey K, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Hemangiopericytoma in children and infants. Cancer 88 (1): 198-204, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Ferrari A, Casanova M, Bisogno G, et al.: Hemangiopericytoma in pediatric ages: a report from the Italian and German Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Group. Cancer 92 (10): 2692-8, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Bien E, Stachowicz-Stencel T, Godzinski J, et al.: Retrospective multi-institutional study on hemangiopericytoma in Polish children. Pediatr Int 51 (1): 19-24, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Weiss SW, Goldblum JR: Enzinger and Weiss’s Soft Tissue Tumors. 5th ed. Mosby, 2008.
5. Fernandez-Pineda I, Parida L, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Childhood hemangiopericytoma: review of St Jude Children’s Research Hospital. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 33 (5): 356-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Haller F, Knopf J, Ackermann A, et al.: Paediatric and adult soft tissue sarcomas with NTRK1 gene fusions: a subset of spindle cell sarcomas unified by a prominent myopericytic/haemangiopericytic pattern. J Pathol 238 (5): 700-10, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Wong V, Pavlick D, Brennan T, et al.: Evaluation of a Congenital Infantile Fibrosarcoma by Comprehensive Genomic Profiling Reveals an LMNA-NTRK1 Gene Fusion Responsive to Crizotinib. J Natl Cancer Inst 108 (1): , 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Doebele RC, Davis LE, Vaishnavi A, et al.: An Oncogenic NTRK Fusion in a Patient with Soft-Tissue Sarcoma with Response to the Tropomyosin-Related Kinase Inhibitor LOXO-101. Cancer Discov 5 (10): 1049-57, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Wiswell TE, Davis J, Cunningham BE, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis: the most common fibrous tumor of infancy. J Pediatr Surg 23 (4): 315-8, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Chung EB, Enzinger FM: Infantile myofibromatosis. Cancer 48 (8): 1807-18, 1981. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Modi N: Congenital generalised fibromatosis. Arch Dis Child 57 (11): 881-2, 1982. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Levine E, Fréneaux P, Schleiermacher G, et al.: Risk-adapted therapy for infantile myofibromatosis in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (1): 115-20, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Larralde M, Hoffner MV, Boggio P, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis: report of nine patients. Pediatr Dermatol 27 (1): 29-33, 2010 Jan-Feb. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Agaimy A, Bieg M, Michal M, et al.: Recurrent Somatic PDGFRB Mutations in Sporadic Infantile/Solitary Adult Myofibromas But Not in Angioleiomyomas and Myopericytomas. Am J Surg Pathol 41 (2): 195-203, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Arts FA, Sciot R, Brichard B, et al.: PDGFRB gain-of-function mutations in sporadic infantile myofibromatosis. Hum Mol Genet 26 (10): 1801-1810, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Dachy G, de Krijger RR, Fraitag S, et al.: Association of PDGFRB Mutations With Pediatric Myofibroma and Myofibromatosis. JAMA Dermatol 155 (8): 946-950, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Cheung YH, Gayden T, Campeau PM, et al.: A recurrent PDGFRB mutation causes familial infantile myofibromatosis. Am J Hum Genet 92 (6): 996-1000, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Martignetti JA, Tian L, Li D, et al.: Mutations in PDGFRB cause autosomal-dominant infantile myofibromatosis. Am J Hum Genet 92 (6): 1001-7, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Murray N, Hanna B, Graf N, et al.: The spectrum of infantile myofibromatosis includes both non-penetrance and adult recurrence. Eur J Med Genet 60 (7): 353-358, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Hettmer S, Dachy G, Seitz G, et al.: Genetic testing and surveillance in infantile myofibromatosis: a report from the SIOPE Host Genome Working Group. Fam Cancer 20 (4): 327-336, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Gopal M, Chahal G, Al-Rifai Z, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis. Pediatr Surg Int 24 (3): 287-91, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Sparber-Sauer M, Vokuhl C, Seitz G, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis: Excellent prognosis but also rare fatal progressive disease. Treatment results of five Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS) trials and one registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer 69 (3): e29403, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Weaver MS, Navid F, Huppmann A, et al.: Vincristine and Dactinomycin in Infantile Myofibromatosis With a Review of Treatment Options. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 37 (3): 237-41, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Weller JM, Keil VC, Gielen GH, et al.: PDGRFB mutation-associated myofibromatosis: Response to targeted therapy with imatinib. Am J Med Genet A 179 (9): 1895-1897, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Wenger TL, Bly RA, Wu N, et al.: Activating variants in PDGFRB result in a spectrum of disorders responsive to imatinib monotherapy. Am J Med Genet A 182 (7): 1576-1591, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Mudry P, Slaby O, Neradil J, et al.: Case report: rapid and durable response to PDGFR targeted therapy in a child with refractory multiple infantile myofibromatosis and a heterozygous germline mutation of the PDGFRB gene. BMC Cancer 17 (1): 119, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
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Tumors of uncertain differentiation have many subtypes, including the following:

References

1. Wilkes D, Charitakis K, Basson CT: Inherited disposition to cardiac myxoma development. Nat Rev Cancer 6 (2): 157-65, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Carney JA, Young WF: Primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease and its associated conditions. Endocrinologist 2: 6-21, 1992.
3. Ryan MW, Cunningham S, Xiao SY: Maxillary sinus melanoma as the presenting feature of Carney complex. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 72 (3): 405-8, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Sultan I, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Saab R, et al.: Comparing children and adults with synovial sarcoma in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, 1983 to 2005: an analysis of 1268 patients. Cancer 115 (15): 3537-47, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Spunt SL, Million L, Chi YY, et al.: A risk-based treatment strategy for non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft-tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 30 years (ARST0332): a Children’s Oncology Group prospective study. Lancet Oncol 21 (1): 145-161, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Wang JG, Li NN: Primary cardiac synovial sarcoma. Ann Thorac Surg 95 (6): 2202-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Chirmade PC, Parikh S, Anand A, et al.: Primary pleuropulmonary synovial sarcoma with brain metastases in a paediatric patient: an unusual presentation. Adv Respir Med 85 (4): 206-210, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Frazier AA, Franks TJ, Pugatch RD, et al.: From the archives of the AFIP: Pleuropulmonary synovial sarcoma. Radiographics 26 (3): 923-40, 2006 May-Jun. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Essary LR, Vargas SO, Fletcher CD: Primary pleuropulmonary synovial sarcoma: reappraisal of a recently described anatomic subset. Cancer 94 (2): 459-69, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Fontanesi J, Luo X, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the St Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience. J Clin Oncol 12 (11): 2360-6, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Oberlin O, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: a critical reappraisal of staging investigations in relation to the rate of metastatic involvement at diagnosis. Eur J Cancer 48 (9): 1370-5, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Scheer M, Blank B, Bauer S, et al.: Synovial sarcoma disease characteristics and primary tumor sites differ between patient age groups: a report of the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 146 (4): 953-960, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. van de Rijn M, Barr FG, Collins MH, et al.: Absence of SYT-SSX fusion products in soft tissue tumors other than synovial sarcoma. Am J Clin Pathol 112 (1): 43-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Krsková L, Sumerauer D, Stejskalová E, et al.: A novel variant of SYT-SSX1 fusion gene in a case of spindle cell synovial sarcoma. Diagn Mol Pathol 16 (3): 179-83, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Su L, Sampaio AV, Jones KB, et al.: Deconstruction of the SS18-SSX fusion oncoprotein complex: insights into disease etiology and therapeutics. Cancer Cell 21 (3): 333-47, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Arnold MA, Arnold CA, Li G, et al.: A unique pattern of INI1 immunohistochemistry distinguishes synovial sarcoma from its histologic mimics. Hum Pathol 44 (5): 881-7, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Vlenterie M, Ho VK, Kaal SE, et al.: Age as an independent prognostic factor for survival of localised synovial sarcoma patients. Br J Cancer 113 (11): 1602-6, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Smolle MA, Parry M, Jeys L, et al.: Synovial sarcoma: Do children do better? Eur J Surg Oncol 45 (2): 254-260, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Okcu MF, Munsell M, Treuner J, et al.: Synovial sarcoma of childhood and adolescence: a multicenter, multivariate analysis of outcome. J Clin Oncol 21 (8): 1602-11, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Brecht IB, Ferrari A, Int-Veen C, et al.: Grossly-resected synovial sarcoma treated by the German and Italian Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Groups: discussion on the role of adjuvant therapies. Pediatr Blood Cancer 46 (1): 11-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Stanelle EJ, Christison-Lagay ER, Healey JH, et al.: Pediatric and adolescent synovial sarcoma: multivariate analysis of prognostic factors and survival outcomes. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (1): 73-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Lagarde P, Przybyl J, Brulard C, et al.: Chromosome instability accounts for reverse metastatic outcomes of pediatric and adult synovial sarcomas. J Clin Oncol 31 (5): 608-15, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Stegmaier S, Leuschner I, Poremba C, et al.: The prognostic impact of SYT-SSX fusion type and histological grade in pediatric patients with synovial sarcoma treated according to the CWS (Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studie) trials. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (1): 89-95, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Scheer M, Dantonello T, Hallmen E, et al.: Primary Metastatic Synovial Sarcoma: Experience of the CWS Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (7): 1198-206, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Orbach D, Mosseri V, Pissaloux D, et al.: Genomic complexity in pediatric synovial sarcomas (Synobio study): the European pediatric soft tissue sarcoma group (EpSSG) experience. Cancer Med 7 (4): 1384-1393, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Trassard M, Le Doussal V, Hacène K, et al.: Prognostic factors in localized primary synovial sarcoma: a multicenter study of 128 adult patients. J Clin Oncol 19 (2): 525-34, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Guillou L, Benhattar J, Bonichon F, et al.: Histologic grade, but not SYT-SSX fusion type, is an important prognostic factor in patients with synovial sarcoma: a multicenter, retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 22 (20): 4040-50, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Ferrari A, Gronchi A, Casanova M, et al.: Synovial sarcoma: a retrospective analysis of 271 patients of all ages treated at a single institution. Cancer 101 (3): 627-34, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Bahig H, Roberge D, Bosch W, et al.: Agreement among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists in contouring suspicious peritumoral edema for preoperative radiation therapy of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86 (2): 298-303, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Baldini EH, Wang D, Haas RL, et al.: Treatment Guidelines for Preoperative Radiation Therapy for Retroperitoneal Sarcoma: Preliminary Consensus of an International Expert Panel. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 92 (3): 602-12, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Ferrari A, Chi YY, De Salvo GL, et al.: Surgery alone is sufficient therapy for children and adolescents with low-risk synovial sarcoma: A joint analysis from the European paediatric soft tissue sarcoma Study Group and the Children’s Oncology Group. Eur J Cancer 78: 1-6, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. McGrory JE, Pritchard DJ, Arndt CA, et al.: Nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas in children. The Mayo Clinic experience. Clin Orthop (374): 247-58, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Van Glabbeke M, van Oosterom AT, Oosterhuis JW, et al.: Prognostic factors for the outcome of chemotherapy in advanced soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of 2,185 patients treated with anthracycline-containing first-line regimens–a European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcoma Group Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (1): 150-7, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. Koscielniak E, Harms D, Henze G, et al.: Results of treatment for soft tissue sarcoma in childhood and adolescence: a final report of the German Cooperative Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study CWS-86. J Clin Oncol 17 (12): 3706-19, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Pappo AS, Devidas M, Jenkins J, et al.: Phase II trial of neoadjuvant vincristine, ifosfamide, and doxorubicin with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor support in children and adolescents with advanced-stage nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas: a Pediatric Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 23 (18): 4031-8, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. Cecchetto G, Alaggio R, Dall’Igna P, et al.: Localized unresectable non-rhabdo soft tissue sarcomas of the extremities in pediatric age: results from the Italian studies. Cancer 104 (9): 2006-12, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Pappo AS, Rao BN, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Metastatic nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft-tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents: the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience. Med Pediatr Oncol 33 (2): 76-82, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
38. Brennan B, Stevens M, Kelsey A, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in childhood and adolescence: a retrospective series of 77 patients registered by the Children’s Cancer and Leukaemia Group between 1991 and 2006. Pediatr Blood Cancer 55 (1): 85-90, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
39. Ferrari A, Miceli R, Rey A, et al.: Non-metastatic unresected paediatric non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas: results of a pooled analysis from United States and European groups. Eur J Cancer 47 (5): 724-31, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Raney RB: Synovial sarcoma in young people: background, prognostic factors, and therapeutic questions. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 27 (4): 207-11, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Orbach D, Mc Dowell H, Rey A, et al.: Sparing strategy does not compromise prognosis in pediatric localized synovial sarcoma: experience of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology, Malignant Mesenchymal Tumors (SIOP-MMT) Working Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (7): 1130-6, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Ladenstein R, Treuner J, Koscielniak E, et al.: Synovial sarcoma of childhood and adolescence. Report of the German CWS-81 study. Cancer 71 (11): 3647-55, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
43. Venkatramani R, Xue W, Randall RL, et al.: Synovial Sarcoma in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults: A Report From the Children’s Oncology Group ARST0332 Study. J Clin Oncol 39 (35): 3927-3937, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
44. Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Brennan B, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group prospective trial (EpSSG NRSTS 2005). Ann Oncol 26 (3): 567-72, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
45. Scheer M, Hallmen E, Vokuhl C, et al.: Pre-operative radiotherapy is associated with superior local relapse-free survival in advanced synovial sarcoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 149 (5): 1717-1731, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
46. Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Dall’Igna P, et al.: Salvage rates and prognostic factors after relapse in children and adolescents with initially localised synovial sarcoma. Eur J Cancer 48 (18): 3448-55, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
47. Scheer M, Dantonello T, Hallmen E, et al.: Synovial Sarcoma Recurrence in Children and Young Adults. Ann Surg Oncol 23 (Suppl 5): 618-626, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
48. Ferrari A, Orbach D, Bergamaschi L, et al.: Treatment at relapse for synovial sarcoma of children and adolescents: A multi-institutional European retrospective analysis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 71 (7): e31038, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
49. Dhakal S, Corbin KS, Milano MT, et al.: Stereotactic body radiotherapy for pulmonary metastases from soft-tissue sarcomas: excellent local lesion control and improved patient survival. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 82 (2): 940-5, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
50. Lai JP, Robbins PF, Raffeld M, et al.: NY-ESO-1 expression in synovial sarcoma and other mesenchymal tumors: significance for NY-ESO-1-based targeted therapy and differential diagnosis. Mod Pathol 25 (6): 854-8, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
51. Robbins PF, Kassim SH, Tran TL, et al.: A pilot trial using lymphocytes genetically engineered with an NY-ESO-1-reactive T-cell receptor: long-term follow-up and correlates with response. Clin Cancer Res 21 (5): 1019-27, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
52. D’Angelo SP, Melchiori L, Merchant MS, et al.: Antitumor Activity Associated with Prolonged Persistence of Adoptively Transferred NY-ESO-1 c259T Cells in Synovial
    

References

1. Ruocco E, Ruocco V, Tornesello ML, et al.: Kaposi’s sarcoma: etiology and pathogenesis, inducing factors, causal associations, and treatments: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol 31 (4): 413-422, 2013 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Uldrick TS, Whitby D: Update on KSHV epidemiology, Kaposi Sarcoma pathogenesis, and treatment of Kaposi Sarcoma. Cancer Lett 305 (2): 150-62, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Cesarman E, Damania B, Krown SE, et al.: Kaposi sarcoma. Nat Rev Dis Primers 5 (1): 9, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Safai B, Good RA: Kaposi’s sarcoma: a review and recent developments. Clin Bull 10 (2): 62-9, 1980. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Portsmouth S, Stebbing J, Gill J, et al.: A comparison of regimens based on non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors or protease inhibitors in preventing Kaposi’s sarcoma. AIDS 17 (11): F17-22, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Carrieri MP, Pradier C, Piselli P, et al.: Reduced incidence of Kaposi’s sarcoma and of systemic non-hodgkin’s lymphoma in HIV-infected individuals treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Int J Cancer 103 (1): 142-4, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Grabar S, Abraham B, Mahamat A, et al.: Differential impact of combination antiretroviral therapy in preventing Kaposi’s sarcoma with and without visceral involvement. J Clin Oncol 24 (21): 3408-14, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Lodi S, Guiguet M, Costagliola D, et al.: Kaposi sarcoma incidence and survival among HIV-infected homosexual men after HIV seroconversion. J Natl Cancer Inst 102 (11): 784-92, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Yanik EL, Achenbach CJ, Gopal S, et al.: Changes in Clinical Context for Kaposi’s Sarcoma and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Among People With HIV Infection in the United States. J Clin Oncol 34 (27): 3276-83, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Krown SE, Metroka C, Wernz JC: Kaposi’s sarcoma in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a proposal for uniform evaluation, response, and staging criteria. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Oncology Committee. J Clin Oncol 7 (9): 1201-7, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Krown SE, Testa MA, Huang J: AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma: prospective validation of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group staging classification. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Oncology Committee. J Clin Oncol 15 (9): 3085-92, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]

Classic Kaposi sarcoma (KS), as well as endemic KS in adult patients, is usually limited to the skin and has an indolent course. Thus, management for both is typically similar. Patients are predisposed to develop a second primary malignancy, and the treating physician should consider this factor when arranging a schedule of follow-up treatment for the patient.

References

1. Tsao MN, Sinclair E, Assaad D, et al.: Radiation therapy for the treatment of skin Kaposi sarcoma. Ann Palliat Med 5 (4): 298-302, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Epstein JB, Lozada-Nur F, McLeod WA, et al.: Oral Kaposi’s sarcoma in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Review of management and report of the efficacy of intralesional vinblastine. Cancer 64 (12): 2424-30, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Bodsworth NJ, Bloch M, Bower M, et al.: Phase III vehicle-controlled, multi-centered study of topical alitretinoin gel 0.1% in cutaneous AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. Am J Clin Dermatol 2 (2): 77-87, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Nisce LZ, Safai B, Poussin-Rosillo H: Once weekly total and subtotal skin electron beam therapy for Kaposi’s sarcoma. Cancer 47 (4): 640-4, 1981. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Di Lorenzo G, Kreuter A, Di Trolio R, et al.: Activity and safety of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin as first-line therapy in the treatment of non-visceral classic Kaposi’s sarcoma: a multicenter study. J Invest Dermatol 128 (6): 1578-80, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Castiñeiras I, Almagro M, Rodríguez-Lozano J, et al.: Disseminated classic Kaposi’s sarcoma. Two cases with excellent response to pegylated liposomal doxorubicin. J Dermatolog Treat 17 (6): 377-80, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Di Lorenzo G, Di Trolio R, Montesarchio V, et al.: Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin as second-line therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced classic Kaposi sarcoma: a retrospective study. Cancer 112 (5): 1147-52, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Potouridou I, Korfitis C, Ioannidou D, et al.: Low to moderate cumulative doses of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin in the treatment of classic Kaposi sarcoma in elderly patients with comorbidities. Br J Dermatol 158 (2): 431-2, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Cianfrocca M, Lee S, Von Roenn J, et al.: Randomized trial of paclitaxel versus pegylated liposomal doxorubicin for advanced human immunodeficiency virus-associated Kaposi sarcoma: evidence of symptom palliation from chemotherapy. Cancer 116 (16): 3969-77, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Brambilla L, Romanelli A, Bellinvia M, et al.: Weekly paclitaxel for advanced aggressive classic Kaposi sarcoma: experience in 17 cases. Br J Dermatol 158 (6): 1339-44, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Chao SC, Lee JY, Tsao CJ: Treatment of classical type Kaposi’s sarcoma with paclitaxel. Anticancer Res 21 (1B): 571-3, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Fardet L, Stoebner PE, Bachelez H, et al.: Treatment with taxanes of refractory or life-threatening Kaposi sarcoma not associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Cancer 106 (8): 1785-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Solan AJ, Greenwald ES, Silvay O: Long-term complete remissions of Kaposi’s sarcoma with vinblastine therapy. Cancer 47 (4): 637-9, 1981. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Tucker SB, Winkelmann RK: Treatment of Kaposi sarcoma with vinblastine. Arch Dermatol 112 (7): 958-61, 1976. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Scott WP, Voight JA: Kaposi’s sarcoma. Management with vincaleucoblastine. Cancer 19 (4): 557-64, 1966. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Klein E, Schwartz RA, Laor Y, et al.: Treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma with vinblastine. Cancer 45 (3): 427-31, 1980. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Tas F, Sen F, Keskin S, et al.: Oral etoposide as first-line therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced classic Kaposi’s sarcoma (CKS): a single-arm trial (oral etoposide in CKS). J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 27 (6): 789-92, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Brambilla L, Labianca R, Boneschi V, et al.: Mediterranean Kaposi’s sarcoma in the elderly. A randomized study of oral etoposide versus vinblastine. Cancer 74 (10): 2873-8, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Brambilla L, Boneschi V, Fossati S, et al.: Oral etoposide for Kaposi’s Mediterranean sarcoma. Dermatologica 177 (6): 365-9, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Brambilla L, Labianca R, Ferrucci SM, et al.: Treatment of classical Kaposi’s sarcoma with gemcitabine. Dermatology 202 (2): 119-22, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Zustovich F, Lombardi G, Pastorelli D: Important role of gemcitabine in the treatment of classic Kaposi’s sarcoma. Tumori 95 (4): 562-3, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Zustovich F, Ferro A, Toso S: Gemcitabine for the treatment of classic Kaposi’s Sarcoma: a case series. Anticancer Res 33 (12): 5531-4, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Ramaswami R, Polizzotto MN, Lurain K, et al.: Safety, Activity, and Long-term Outcomes of Pomalidomide in the Treatment of Kaposi Sarcoma among Individuals with or without HIV Infection. Clin Cancer Res 28 (5): 840-850, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Polizzotto MN, Uldrick TS, Wyvill KM, et al.: Pomalidomide for Symptomatic Kaposi’s Sarcoma in People With and Without HIV Infection: A Phase I/II Study. J Clin Oncol 34 (34): 4125-4131, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Costa da Cunha CS, Lebbe C, Rybojad M, et al.: Long-term follow-up of non-HIV Kaposi’s sarcoma treated with low-dose recombinant interferon alfa-2b. Arch Dermatol 132 (3): 285-90, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Delyon J, Biard L, Renaud M, et al.: PD-1 blockade with pembrolizumab in classic or endemic Kaposi’s sarcoma: a multicentre, single-arm, phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol 23 (4): 491-500, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Zer A, Icht O, Yosef L, et al.: Phase II single-arm study of nivolumab and ipilimumab (Nivo/Ipi) in previously treated classical Kaposi sarcoma (cKS). Ann Oncol 33 (7): 720-727, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment of AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma (KS) may result in the following:

No data are available to show that treatment improves survival.[1] In addition to antitumor treatment, essential components of an optimal KS treatment strategy in this population include antiretroviral treatment, prophylaxis for opportunistic infections, and rapid recognition and treatment of intercurrent infections. Therefore, close collaboration between oncologists and HIV specialists is vital.

Most patients with good-risk disease, defined by the AIDS Clinical Trials Group as T0, show tumor regression with antiretroviral therapy alone.[2–4] Patients with poor-risk disease, defined as T1, usually require a combination of antiretroviral therapy and chemotherapy with discontinuation of the chemotherapy after disappearance of the skin lesion.[2–4]

References

1. Safai B: Kaposi’s sarcoma and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg S, eds.: AIDS: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention. 4th ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997, pp 295-318.
2. Krown SE: Highly active antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma: implications for the design of therapeutic trials in patients with advanced, symptomatic Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 22 (3): 399-402, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Bower M, Dalla Pria A, Coyle C, et al.: Prospective stage-stratified approach to AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 32 (5): 409-14, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Krell J, Stebbing J: Broader implications of a stage-guided stratified therapeutic approach for AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 32 (5): 373-5, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Singh NB, Lakier RH, Donde B: Hypofractionated radiation therapy in the treatment of epidemic Kaposi sarcoma–a prospective randomized trial. Radiother Oncol 88 (2): 211-6, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Tsao MN, Sinclair E, Assaad D, et al.: Radiation therapy for the treatment of skin Kaposi sarcoma. Ann Palliat Med 5 (4): 298-302, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Epstein JB, Lozada-Nur F, McLeod WA, et al.: Oral Kaposi’s sarcoma in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Review of management and report of the efficacy of intralesional vinblastine. Cancer 64 (12): 2424-30, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Bodsworth NJ, Bloch M, Bower M, et al.: Phase III vehicle-controlled, multi-centered study of topical alitretinoin gel 0.1% in cutaneous AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. Am J Clin Dermatol 2 (2): 77-87, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Evans SR, Krown SE, Testa MA, et al.: Phase II evaluation of low-dose oral etoposide for the treatment of relapsed or progressive AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma: an AIDS Clinical Trials Group clinical study. J Clin Oncol 20 (15): 3236-41, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Saville MW, Lietzau J, Pluda JM, et al.: Treatment of HIV-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma with paclitaxel. Lancet 346 (8966): 26-8, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Lim ST, Tupule A, Espina BM, et al.: Weekly docetaxel is safe and effective in the treatment of advanced-stage acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related Kaposi sarcoma. Cancer 103 (2): 417-21, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Gill PS, Tulpule A, Espina BM, et al.: Paclitaxel is safe and effective in the treatment of advanced AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 17 (6): 1876-83, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Di Lorenzo G, Konstantinopoulos PA, Pantanowitz L, et al.: Management of AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. Lancet Oncol 8 (2): 167-76, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Stewart S, Jablonowski H, Goebel FD, et al.: Randomized comparative trial of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin versus bleomycin and vincristine in the treatment of AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. International Pegylated Liposomal Doxorubicin Study Group. J Clin Oncol 16 (2): 683-91, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Northfelt DW, Dezube BJ, Thommes JA, et al.: Pegylated-liposomal doxorubicin versus doxorubicin, bleomycin, and vincristine in the treatment of AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma: results of a randomized phase III clinical trial. J Clin Oncol 16 (7): 2445-51, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Gill PS, Wernz J, Scadden DT, et al.: Randomized phase III trial of liposomal daunorubicin versus doxorubicin, bleomycin, and vincristine in AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 14 (8): 2353-64, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Cianfrocca M, Lee S, Von Roenn J, et al.: Randomized trial of paclitaxel versus pegylated liposomal doxorubicin for advanced human immunodeficiency virus-associated Kaposi sarcoma: evidence of symptom palliation from chemotherapy. Cancer 116 (16): 3969-77, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Real FX, Oettgen HF, Krown SE: Kaposi’s sarcoma and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: treatment with high and low doses of recombinant leukocyte A interferon. J Clin Oncol 4 (4): 544-51, 1986. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Groopman JE, Gottlieb MS, Goodman J, et al.: Recombinant alpha-2 interferon therapy for Kaposi’s sarcoma associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 100 (5): 671-6, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Koon HB, Krown SE, Lee JY, et al.: Phase II trial of imatinib in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma: AIDS Malignancy Consortium Protocol 042. J Clin Oncol 32 (5): 402-8, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Uldrick TS, Wyvill KM, Kumar P, et al.: Phase II study of bevacizumab in patients with HIV-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Oncol 30 (13): 1476-83, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Little RF, Pluda JM, Wyvill KM, et al.: Activity of subcutaneous interleukin-12 in AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma. Blood 107 (12): 4650-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Ramaswami R, Polizzotto MN, Lurain K, et al.: Safety, Activity, and Long-term Outcomes of Pomalidomide in the Treatment of Kaposi Sarcoma among Individuals with or without HIV Infection. Clin Cancer Res 28 (5): 840-850, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Polizzotto MN, Uldrick TS, Wyvill KM, et al.: Pomalidomide for Symptomatic Kaposi’s Sarcoma in People With and Without HIV Infection: A Phase I/II Study. J Clin Oncol 34 (34): 4125-4131, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Reid EG, Suazo A, Lensing SY, et al.: Pilot Trial AMC-063: Safety and Efficacy of Bortezomib in AIDS-associated Kaposi Sarcoma. Clin Cancer Res 26 (3): 558-565, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Poizot-Martin I, Brégigeon S, Palich R, et al.: Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome Associated Kaposi Sarcoma. Cancers (Basel) 14 (4): , 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Fernández-Sánchez M, Iglesias MC, Ablanedo-Terrazas Y, et al.: Steroids are a risk factor for Kaposi’s sarcoma-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome and mortality in HIV infection. AIDS 30 (6): 909-14, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Volkow PF, Cornejo P, Zinser JW, et al.: Life-threatening exacerbation of Kaposi’s sarcoma after prednisone treatment for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS 22 (5): 663-5, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Brunel AS, Reynes J, Tuaillon E, et al.: Thalidomide for steroid-dependent immune reconstitution inflammatory syndromes during AIDS. AIDS 26 (16): 2110-2, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Stallone G, Schena A, Infante B, et al.: Sirolimus for Kaposi’s sarcoma in renal-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 352 (13): 1317-23, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Note: The Overview section summarizes the published evidence on this topic. The rest of the summary describes the evidence in more detail.

Other PDQ summaries on Cervical Cancer Prevention, Cervical Cancer Treatment, and Levels of Evidence for Cancer Screening and Prevention Studies are also available.

References

1. Sasieni P, Castanon A, Cuzick J: Effectiveness of cervical screening with age: population based case-control study of prospectively recorded data. BMJ 339: b2968, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Sawaya GF, McConnell KJ, Kulasingam SL, et al.: Risk of cervical cancer associated with extending the interval between cervical-cancer screenings. N Engl J Med 349 (16): 1501-9, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: Screening for cervical cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 156 (12): 880-91, W312, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Kyrgiou M, Athanasiou A, Paraskevaidi M, et al.: Adverse obstetric outcomes after local treatment for cervical preinvasive and early invasive disease according to cone depth: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 354: i3633, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Wright TC, Stoler MH, Behrens CM, et al.: Primary cervical cancer screening with human papillomavirus: end of study results from the ATHENA study using HPV as the first-line screening test. Gynecol Oncol 136 (2): 189-97, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Sankaranarayanan R, Nene BM, Shastri SS, et al.: HPV screening for cervical cancer in rural India. N Engl J Med 360 (14): 1385-94, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Szarewski A: Cervical screening by visual inspection with acetic acid. Lancet 370 (9585): 365-6, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Chen HC, Schiffman M, Lin CY, et al.: Persistence of type-specific human papillomavirus infection and increased long-term risk of cervical cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 103 (18): 1387-96, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ronco G, Dillner J, Elfström KM, et al.: Efficacy of HPV-based screening for prevention of invasive cervical cancer: follow-up of four European randomised controlled trials. Lancet 383 (9916): 524-32, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]

It is estimated that 13,360 cases of invasive cervical cancer will be diagnosed and that 4,320 women will die of the disease in the United States in 2025.[1] Cervical cancer incidence and mortality rates have steadily improved over time and have stabilized in recent years, attributed largely to screening with Papanicolaou (Pap) test. However, the mortality rate in Black women is 50% higher and in Native American women is 70% higher than in White women.[1] When corrected for the prevalence of hysterectomy, the mortality rate for Black women is nearly twice the mortality rate for White women.[2]

Invasive squamous carcinoma of the cervix results from the progression of preinvasive precursor lesions called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), or dysplasia. CIN is histologically graded into mild dysplasia (CIN 1), moderate dysplasia (CIN 2), or severe dysplasia (CIN 3). Not all of these lesions progress to invasive cancer; many mild and moderate lesions regress. A further categorization, the Bethesda System, is based on cytologic findings: atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS) or cannot rule out low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSILs), LSILs (consisting of cytologic atypia and CIN 1), and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs), primarily CIN 2–3 plus carcinoma in situ.[3]

The rate at which invasive cancer develops from CIN is usually slow, measured in years and perhaps decades.[4] This long natural history provides the opportunity for screening to effectively detect this process during the preinvasive phase, thus allowing early treatment and cure. Because many of these preinvasive lesions (especially LSILs) may never progress to invasive cancer,[5–7] screening also runs the risk of leading to treatment for women who may not need it.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is an oncogenic virus and the etiologic agent of cervical cancer and related premalignant disease. HPV is transmitted by sexual contact. Sexually inactive women rarely develop cervical cancer, while sexual activity at an early age with multiple sexual partners is a strong risk factor.[8] Nearly all women with invasive cervical cancer have evidence of HPV infection.[9–12] Most women with HPV infection, however, never develop cervical cancer; thus, this infection is necessary but not sufficient for the development of cancer.[13]

Although cervical cancer mortality increases with age,[14] the prevalence of CIN is highest among women in their 20s and 30s. Mortality is rare among women younger than 30 years; HSILs are rare among women older than 65 years who have been previously screened. About 70% of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance and CIN 1 lesions regress within 6 years, while about 6% of CIN 1 lesions progress to CIN 3 or worse. In about 10% to 20% of women with CIN 3 lesions, the lesions progress to invasive cancer.[4,7,15]

Historically, cervical cancer mortality rates were substantially higher (twice as high or more) in Black women than in White women younger than 50 years. However, recent rates (2018–2022) have been only modestly higher (17%) in Black women than in White women in this age group. Among women older than 60 years, cervical cancer mortality rates have historically been up to three times as high in Black women than in White women; recent rates (2018–2022) are still almost twice as high in Black women than in White women.[14] In either case, mortality is rare among women of any age who have regular screenings.

References

1. American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts and Figures 2025. American Cancer Society, 2025. Available online. Last accessed January 16, 2025.
2. Beavis AL, Gravitt PE, Rositch AF: Hysterectomy-corrected cervical cancer mortality rates reveal a larger racial disparity in the United States. Cancer 123 (6): 1044-1050, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Solomon D, Davey D, Kurman R, et al.: The 2001 Bethesda System: terminology for reporting results of cervical cytology. JAMA 287 (16): 2114-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Holowaty P, Miller AB, Rohan T, et al.: Natural history of dysplasia of the uterine cervix. J Natl Cancer Inst 91 (3): 252-8, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Nasiell K, Roger V, Nasiell M: Behavior of mild cervical dysplasia during long-term follow-up. Obstet Gynecol 67 (5): 665-9, 1986. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Nash JD, Burke TW, Hoskins WJ: Biologic course of cervical human papillomavirus infection. Obstet Gynecol 69 (2): 160-2, 1987. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Melnikow J, Nuovo J, Willan AR, et al.: Natural history of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 92 (4 Pt 2): 727-35, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Berrington de González A, Green J; International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer: Comparison of risk factors for invasive squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the cervix: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 8,097 women with squamous cell carcinoma and 1,374 women with adenocarcinoma from 12 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 120 (4): 885-91, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Bosch FX, Manos MM, Muñoz N, et al.: Prevalence of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. International biological study on cervical cancer (IBSCC) Study Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 87 (11): 796-802, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Wallin KL, Wiklund F, Angström T, et al.: Type-specific persistence of human papillomavirus DNA before the development of invasive cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 341 (22): 1633-8, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Alani RM, Münger K: Human papillomaviruses and associated malignancies. J Clin Oncol 16 (1): 330-7, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, et al.: Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. J Pathol 189 (1): 12-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, et al.: Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med 338 (7): 423-8, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
15. Arends MJ, Buckley CH, Wells M: Aetiology, pathogenesis, and pathology of cervical neoplasia. J Clin Pathol 51 (2): 96-103, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]

The Papanicolaou (Pap) test has never been examined in a randomized controlled trial. A large body of consistent observational data, however, supports its effectiveness in reducing mortality from cervical cancer. Both incidence and mortality from cervical cancer have sharply decreased in a number of large populations after the introduction of well-run screening programs.[1–4] In Iceland, the mortality rate declined by 80% for more than 20 years, and in Finland and Sweden by 50% and 34%, respectively.[1,5] Similar reductions have been observed in large populations in the United States and Canada. Reductions in cervical cancer incidence and mortality were proportional to the intensity of screening.[1,5] Mortality in the Canadian provinces was reduced most remarkably in British Columbia, which had screening rates two to five times those of the other provinces.[6]

Case-control studies have found that the risk of developing invasive cervical cancer is three to ten times higher in women who have not been screened.[7–10] Risk also increases with long duration after the last normal Pap test, or similarly, with decreasing frequency of screening.[11,12] Screening every 2 to 3 years, however, has not been found to significantly increase the risk of finding invasive cervical cancer above the risk expected with annual screening.[12–14]

References

1. Lăără E, Day NE, Hakama M: Trends in mortality from cervical cancer in the Nordic countries: association with organised screening programmes. Lancet 1 (8544): 1247-9, 1987. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Christopherson WM, Lundin FE, Mendez WM, et al.: Cervical cancer control: a study of morbidity and mortality trends over a twenty-one-year period. Cancer 38 (3): 1357-66, 1976. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Miller AB, Lindsay J, Hill GB: Mortality from cancer of the uterus in Canada and its relationship to screening for cancer of the cervix. Int J Cancer 17 (5): 602-12, 1976. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Johannesson G, Geirsson G, Day N: The effect of mass screening in Iceland, 1965-74, on the incidence and mortality of cervical carcinoma. Int J Cancer 21 (4): 418-25, 1978. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Sigurdsson K: Effect of organized screening on the risk of cervical cancer. Evaluation of screening activity in Iceland, 1964-1991. Int J Cancer 54 (4): 563-70, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Benedet JL, Anderson GH, Matisic JP: A comprehensive program for cervical cancer detection and management. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166 (4): 1254-9, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Aristizabal N, Cuello C, Correa P, et al.: The impact of vaginal cytology on cervical cancer risks in Cali, Colombia. Int J Cancer 34 (1): 5-9, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Clarke EA, Anderson TW: Does screening by “Pap” smears help prevent cervical cancer? A case-control study. Lancet 2 (8132): 1-4, 1979. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, Decarli A, et al.: “Pap” smear and the risk of cervical neoplasia: quantitative estimates from a case-control study. Lancet 2 (8406): 779-82, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Herrero R, Brinton LA, Reeves WC, et al.: Screening for cervical cancer in Latin America: a case-control study. Int J Epidemiol 21 (6): 1050-6, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Celentano DD, Klassen AC, Weisman CS, et al.: Duration of relative protection of screening for cervical cancer. Prev Med 18 (4): 411-22, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Screening for squamous cervical cancer: duration of low risk after negative results of cervical cytology and its implication for screening policies. IARC Working Group on evaluation of cervical cancer screening programmes. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 293 (6548): 659-64, 1986. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Kleinman JC, Kopstein A: Who is being screened for cervical cancer? Am J Public Health 71 (1): 73-6, 1981. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Qin J, Saraiya M, Martinez G, et al.: Prevalence of Potentially Unnecessary Bimanual Pelvic Examinations and Papanicolaou Tests Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women Aged 15-20 Years in the United States. JAMA Intern Med 180 (2): 274-280, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]

Ideally, determining the sensitivity and specificity of a screening test would involve a study that applies a gold standard test (such as colposcopy with appropriate biopsy) to all participants (whether the screening test results are positive or negative). Sensitivity (the percentage of true-positive cases that are detected by the screening test) and specificity (the percentage of true-negative cases that are negative by the screening test) could be calculated. Such studies have rarely been done for any screening test for cervical cancer. Studies that compare the Pap test with repeat Pap testing have found that the sensitivity of any abnormality on a single test for detecting high-grade lesions is 55% to 80%.[1,2] Because of the usual slow-growing nature of cervical cancer, the sensitivity of a program of regular Pap testing is likely higher.

To determine the sensitivity and specificity of the Pap smear, both a test threshold (i.e., the point at which the test will be considered to be positive) and a reference-standard threshold (i.e., the point at which the reference standard is considered to be positive) must be defined. In practice, atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS) are often used as the test threshold, and CIN 1 is often used as the reference threshold. This combination gives a sensitivity of about 68% and a specificity of about 75%. A more appropriate test threshold may be LSIL, with a reference threshold of CIN 2–3. This combination gives a sensitivity of 70% to 80%, with a specificity of about 95%.[3]

One important factor in the accuracy of the Pap test is the adequacy of the specimen obtained. Adequate training and using techniques such as the cytobrush may improve sensitivity.[4]

References

1. Soost HJ, Lange HJ, Lehmacher W, et al.: The validation of cervical cytology. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values. Acta Cytol 35 (1): 8-14, 1991 Jan-Feb. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Benoit AG, Krepart GV, Lotocki RJ: Results of prior cytologic screening in patients with a diagnosis of Stage I carcinoma of the cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol 148 (5): 690-4, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Nanda K, McCrory DC, Myers ER, et al.: Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 132 (10): 810-9, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Martin-Hirsch P, Lilford R, Jarvis G, et al.: Efficacy of cervical-smear collection devices: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 354 (9192): 1763-70, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]

Newer techniques that employ liquid-based cytology (LBC) (e.g., ThinPrep) have been developed to improve the sensitivity of screening. In 1996, the ThinPrep® Papanicolaou (Pap) test became the first LBC approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[1] As with the Pap test, the optimal studies to determine the sensitivity and specificity of these technologies have not been conducted. Some less-than-optimal studies show that sensitivity is modestly higher for detecting any degree of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, with modestly lower specificity.[2,3] One study, however, showed that conventional Pap testing was slightly more sensitive and specific than LBC.[4]

The evidence is also mixed about whether liquid-based techniques improve rates of test adequacy.[2,3] One advantage of LBC is that HPV testing can be performed on the same preparation; one disadvantage is that liquid-based approaches are more expensive than conventional Pap testing. No study has examined whether LBC actually reduces the number of women dying of cervical cancer compared with conventional Pap testing.

References

1. Gibb RK, Martens MG: The impact of liquid-based cytology in decreasing the incidence of cervical cancer. Rev Obstet Gynecol 4 (Suppl 1): S2-S11, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Hartmann KE, Hall SA, Nanda K, et al.: Screening for Cervical Cancer. Rockville, Md: Agency for Health Research and Quality, 2002. Available online. Last accessed December 18, 2024.
3. McCrory DC, Matchar DB, Bastian L, et al.: Evaluation of Cervical Cytology. Rockville, Md: Agency for Health Research and Quality, 1999. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 5. AHCPR Publication No. 99-E010. Also available online. Last accessed December 18, 2024.
4. Coste J, Cochand-Priollet B, de Cremoux P, et al.: Cross sectional study of conventional cervical smear, monolayer cytology, and human papillomavirus DNA testing for cervical cancer screening. BMJ 326 (7392): 733, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]

Women who have had a hysterectomy with removal of the cervix for benign disease rarely have important abnormalities found on Pap testing. Several studies have shown that the rate of high-grade vaginal lesions or vaginal cancer is less than 1 in 1,000 tests;[1,2] no study has shown that screening for vaginal cancer reduces mortality from this rare condition.

References

1. Fox J, Remington P, Layde P, et al.: The effect of hysterectomy on the risk of an abnormal screening Papanicolaou test result. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180 (5): 1104-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Pearce KF, Haefner HK, Sarwar SF, et al.: Cytopathological findings on vaginal Papanicolaou smears after hysterectomy for benign gynecologic disease. N Engl J Med 335 (21): 1559-62, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]

Because cervical cancer is slow growing, there is considerable uncertainty about the optimal screening interval. The most direct evidence about this issue comes from a prospective cohort analysis of a randomized controlled trial.[1] Among 2,561 women (mean age, 66.7 years) with normal Pap tests at baseline, 110 had an abnormal Pap test within the next 2 years. No woman was found to have cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 2–3 or invasive cancer, and only one woman had CIN 1–2. Thus, the positive predictive value (PPV) of screening 1 year after a negative Pap test was 0%; after 2 years, the PPV was 0.9%. The authors concluded that Pap tests should not be repeated within 2 years of a negative test. A large (N = 332,000) prospective cohort study of cervical cytology and human papillomavirus DNA cotesting in U.S. women aged 30 years and older found that a negative Pap smear was associated with a low risk of developing CIN 3 or cancer (CIN 3+) for up to 5 years after the test (cumulative incidence of CIN 3+ at 3 and 5 years was 0.17% and 0.36%, respectively).[2]

A large study that included data from the National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program together with modeling found little further mortality reduction from cervical cancer for screening every year as compared with screening every 3 years.[3] A similar modeling study from Australia found no differences between screening every 2 years and screening every 3 years.[4]

References

1. Sawaya GF, Grady D, Kerlikowske K, et al.: The positive predictive value of cervical smears in previously screened postmenopausal women: the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Ann Intern Med 133 (12): 942-50, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Katki HA, Kinney WK, Fetterman B, et al.: Cervical cancer risk for women undergoing concurrent testing for human papillomavirus and cervical cytology: a population-based study in routine clinical practice. Lancet Oncol 12 (7): 663-72, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Sawaya GF, McConnell KJ, Kulasingam SL, et al.: Risk of cervical cancer associated with extending the interval between cervical-cancer screenings. N Engl J Med 349 (16): 1501-9, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Creighton P, Lew JB, Clements M, et al.: Cervical cancer screening in Australia: modelled evaluation of the impact of changing the recommended interval from two to three years. BMC Public Health 10: 734, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Noninvasive cervical squamous cell abnormalities are graded histologically as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) mild dysplasia (CIN 1), moderate dysplasia (CIN 2), or severe dysplasia (CIN 3), according to the severity of the cell changes and the percent of the epithelium replaced by abnormal cell growth. CIN 3 is a reasonably reproducible diagnosis and, if untreated, has an approximate 30% risk of developing into invasive cancer over many years.[1] CIN 2 has poor interobserver reproducibility,[2] and the biological behavior is variable.[3] CIN 3 is therefore a more rigorous end point for clinical trials, while CIN 2 represents the threshold for treatment to provide an additional measure of safety.

Approximately 15 cancer-associated (high-risk or carcinogenic) HPV genotypes cause virtually all cases of cervical cancer and precursor lesions of CIN 2 and CIN 3. However, carcinogenic HPV infections are very common, particularly in young women, and most infections clear on their own within 1 to 2 years. Therefore, the challenge of incorporating HPV testing in cervical screening programs is to balance sensitivity for detection of CIN 2 or CIN 2+ and to minimize the over-referral of women with transient HPV infections and cervical changes that are destined to regress.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved several HPV tests. Most of these tests are based on the detection of DNA from one or more oncogenic types of HPV. One test detects HPV RNA. HPV testing is approved for use in two contexts: (1) as a second (i.e., triage) test after an equivocal cytology result of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS); and (2) for primary screening in conjunction with cervical cytology for women aged 30 years and older.[4] Testing for low-risk HPV types does not identify women at risk of developing CIN 2 or 3.[5,6]

References

1. McCredie MR, Sharples KJ, Paul C, et al.: Natural history of cervical neoplasia and risk of invasive cancer in women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Oncol 9 (5): 425-34, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Stoler MH, Schiffman M; Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance-Low-grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion Triage Study (ALTS) Group: Interobserver reproducibility of cervical cytologic and histologic interpretations: realistic estimates from the ASCUS-LSIL Triage Study. JAMA 285 (11): 1500-5, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Castle PE, Schiffman M, Wheeler CM, et al.: Evidence for frequent regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia-grade 2. Obstet Gynecol 113 (1): 18-25, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Halfon P, Trepo E, Antoniotti G, et al.: Prospective evaluation of the Hybrid Capture 2 and AMPLICOR human papillomavirus (HPV) tests for detection of 13 high-risk HPV genotypes in atypical squamous cells of uncertain significance. J Clin Microbiol 45 (2): 313-6, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Thomsen LT, Frederiksen K, Munk C, et al.: High-risk and low-risk human papillomavirus and the absolute risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or cancer. Obstet Gynecol 123 (1): 57-64, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Castle PE, Hunt WC, Langsfeld E, et al.: Three-year risk of cervical precancer and cancer after the detection of low-risk human papillomavirus genotypes targeted by a commercial test. Obstet Gynecol 123 (1): 49-56, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Kulasingam SL, Kim JJ, Lawrence WF, et al.: Cost-effectiveness analysis based on the atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance/low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion Triage Study (ALTS). J Natl Cancer Inst 98 (2): 92-100, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. ASCUS-LSIL Traige Study (ALTS) Group: Results of a randomized trial on the management of cytology interpretations of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188 (6): 1383-92, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Wright TC, Massad LS, Dunton CJ, et al.: 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with abnormal cervical cancer screening tests. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (4): 346-55, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Sherman ME, Schiffman M, Cox JT, et al.: Effects of age and human papilloma viral load on colposcopy triage: data from the randomized Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance/Low-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion Triage Study (ALTS). J Natl Cancer Inst 94 (2): 102-7, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. ASCUS-LSIL Traige Study (ALTS) Group: A randomized trial on the management of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion cytology interpretations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188 (6): 1393-400, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Zuna RE, Wang SS, Rosenthal DL, et al.: Determinants of human papillomavirus-negative, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions in the atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance/low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions triage study (ALTS). Cancer 105 (5): 253-62, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Katki HA, Kinney WK, Fetterman B, et al.: Cervical cancer risk for women undergoing concurrent testing for human papillomavirus and cervical cytology: a population-based study in routine clinical practice. Lancet Oncol 12 (7): 663-72, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Dijkstra MG, van Zummeren M, Rozendaal L, et al.: Safety of extending screening intervals beyond five years in cervical screening programmes with testing for high risk human papillomavirus: 14 year follow-up of population based randomised cohort in the Netherlands. BMJ 355: i4924, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Saslow D, Runowicz CD, Solomon D, et al.: American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of cervical neoplasia and cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 52 (6): 342-62, 2002 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Goldie SJ, Kim JJ, Wright TC: Cost-effectiveness of human papillomavirus DNA testing for cervical cancer screening in women aged 30 years or more. Obstet Gynecol 103 (4): 619-31, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Arbyn M, Sasieni P, Meijer CJ, et al.: Chapter 9: Clinical applications of HPV testing: a summary of meta-analyses. Vaccine 24 (Suppl 3): S3/78-89, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Mayrand MH, Duarte-Franco E, Rodrigues I, et al.: Human papillomavirus DNA versus Papanicolaou screening tests for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 357 (16): 1579-88, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Naucler P, Ryd W, Törnberg S, et al.: Human papillomavirus and Papanicolaou tests to screen for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 357 (16): 1589-97, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Bulkmans NW, Berkhof J, Rozendaal L, et al.: Human papillomavirus DNA testing for the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 and cancer: 5-year follow-up of a randomised controlled implementation trial. Lancet 370 (9601): 1764-72, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Cuzick J, Szarewski A, Cubie H, et al.: Management of women who test positive for high-risk types of human papillomavirus: the HART study. Lancet 362 (9399): 1871-6, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Hartmann KE, Hall SA, Nanda K, et al.: Screening for Cervical Cancer. Rockville, Md: Agency for Health Research and Quality, 2002. Available online. Last accessed December 18, 2024.
23. Cuzick J, Clavel C, Petry KU, et al.: Overview of the European and North American studies on HPV testing in primary cervical cancer screening. Int J Cancer 119 (5): 1095-101, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Ogilvie GS, van Niekerk D, Krajden M, et al.: Effect of Screening With Primary Cervical HPV Testing vs Cytology Testing on High-grade Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia at 48 Months: The HPV FOCAL Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 320 (1): 43-52, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Carozzi F, Confortini M, Dalla Palma P, et al.: Use of p16-INK4A overexpression to increase the specificity of human papillomavirus testing: a nested substudy of the NTCC randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 9 (10): 937-45, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Koshiol J, Lindsay L, Pimenta JM, et al.: Persistent human papillomavirus infection and cervical neoplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 168 (2): 123-37, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Castle PE: Invited commentary: is monitoring of human papillomavirus infection for viral persistence ready for use in cervical cancer screening? Am J Epidemiol 168 (2): 138-44; discussion 145-8, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Ronco G, Giorgi-Rossi P, Carozzi F, et al.: Efficacy of human papillomavirus testing for the detection of invasive cervical cancers and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 11 (3): 249-57, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Naucler P, Ryd W, Törnberg S, et al.: Efficacy of HPV DNA testing with cytology triage and/or repeat HPV DNA testing in primary cervical cancer screening. J Natl Cancer Inst 101 (2): 88-99, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Schiffman M, Kinney WK, Cheung LC, et al.: Relative Performance of HPV and Cytology Components of Cotesting in Cervical Screening. J Natl Cancer Inst 110 (5): 501-508, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Wentzensen N, Lahrmann B, Clarke MA, et al.: Accuracy and Efficiency of Deep-Learning-Based Automation of Dual Stain Cytology in Cervical Cancer Screening. J Natl Cancer Inst 113 (1): 72-79, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cervical cancer mortality, usually in unscreened women, increases with age, with the maximum mortality for White women between the ages of 45 years and 70 years, and for Black women in their 70s.[1,2] (Also available online.)

Mortality among women with negative Pap screening is low at all ages.

Screening by Pap testing with associated diagnostic testing and treatment is effective in reducing the incidence of all histologies and stages of invasive cervical cancer.[3] The benefit increases with age. Whereas the odds ratio is 0.79 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57–1.1) among women screened at age 30 to 31 years for developing cancer at age 35 to 39 years, it improves to 0.26 (95% CI, 0.19–0.36) among women screened at age 52 to 54 years for developing cancer at age 55 to 59 years.

Women aged 20 years and younger are more likely to have Pap abnormalities leading to further testing and treatment, so forgoing Pap testing in these women may improve the benefit-risk balance for this intervention. For more information, see the Evidence of Harm section. Women in this age group have a very low risk of cervical cancer and a high likelihood that cervical cell abnormalities will go away on their own.[4]

High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions are rare among women older than 65 years who have been previously screened. For women with a negative Pap test at age 60 years and older, the likelihood of having a new diagnosis of CIN 3+ on repeat screening is less than 1 in 1,000 (in some studies, as few as 2–6 in 10,000).[5]

References

1. Saslow D, Runowicz CD, Solomon D, et al.: American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of cervical neoplasia and cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 52 (6): 342-62, 2002 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: cervical cancer, April 1-3, 1996. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr (21): vii-xix, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Sasieni P, Castanon A, Cuzick J: Effectiveness of cervical screening with age: population based case-control study of prospectively recorded data. BMJ 339: b2968, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Saslow D, Solomon D, Lawson HW, et al.: American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 62 (3): 147-72, 2012 May-Jun. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Sawaya GF, Grady D, Kerlikowske K, et al.: The positive predictive value of cervical smears in previously screened postmenopausal women: the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Ann Intern Med 133 (12): 942-50, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]

Choice in methods of screening for cervical cancer in resource-limited countries or underserved populations has prompted the evaluation of alternative methods, including self-collected human papillomavirus (HPV) tests and one-time screen-and-treat approaches.

References

1. Sankaranarayanan R, Esmy PO, Rajkumar R, et al.: Effect of visual screening on cervical cancer incidence and mortality in Tamil Nadu, India: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 370 (9585): 398-406, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Sankaranarayanan R, Nene BM, Shastri SS, et al.: HPV screening for cervical cancer in rural India. N Engl J Med 360 (14): 1385-94, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Szarewski A: Cervical screening by visual inspection with acetic acid. Lancet 370 (9585): 365-6, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Shastri SS, Mittra I, Mishra GA, et al.: Effect of VIA screening by primary health workers: randomized controlled study in Mumbai, India. J Natl Cancer Inst 106 (3): dju009, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Basu P, Mittal S, Banerjee D, et al.: Diagnostic accuracy of VIA and HPV detection as primary and sequential screening tests in a cervical cancer screening demonstration project in India. Int J Cancer 137 (4): 859-67, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Denny L, Kuhn L, De Souza M, et al.: Screen-and-treat approaches for cervical cancer prevention in low-resource settings: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 294 (17): 2173-81, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Hu L, Bell D, Antani S, et al.: An Observational Study of Deep Learning and Automated Evaluation of Cervical Images for Cancer Screening. J Natl Cancer Inst 111 (9): 923-932, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Brewster WR, Hubbell FA, Largent J, et al.: Feasibility of management of high-grade cervical lesions in a single visit: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 294 (17): 2182-7, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Zhao FH, Lewkowitz AK, Chen F, et al.: Pooled analysis of a self-sampling HPV DNA Test as a cervical cancer primary screening method. J Natl Cancer Inst 104 (3): 178-88, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Polman NJ, Ebisch RMF, Heideman DAM, et al.: Performance of human papillomavirus testing on self-collected versus clinician-collected samples for the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia of grade 2 or worse: a randomised, paired screen-positive, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Oncol 20 (2): 229-238, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Arrossi S, Thouyaret L, Herrero R, et al.: Effect of self-collection of HPV DNA offered by community health workers at home visits on uptake of screening for cervical cancer (the EMA study): a population-based cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health 3 (2): e85-94, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Ketelaars PJW, Bosgraaf RP, Siebers AG, et al.: High-risk human papillomavirus detection in self-sampling compared to physician-taken smear in a responder population of the Dutch cervical screening: Results of the VERA study. Prev Med 101: 96-101, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Winer RL, Lin J, Tiro JA, et al.: Effect of Mailed Human Papillomavirus Test Kits vs Usual Care Reminders on Cervical Cancer Screening Uptake, Precancer Detection, and Treatment: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open 2 (11): e1914729, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Winer RL, Lin J, Anderson ML, et al.: Strategies to Increase Cervical Cancer Screening With Mailed Human Papillomavirus Self-Sampling Kits: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 330 (20): 1971-1981, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Kobetz E, Seay J, Koru-Sengul T, et al.: A randomized trial of mailed HPV self-sampling for cervical cancer screening among ethnic minority women in South Florida. Cancer Causes Control 29 (9): 793-801, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]

Annually in the United States, an estimated 65 million women undergo cervical cancer screening;[1] about 3.9 million (6%) will be referred for further evaluation.[2] About 11,000 cases of invasive cervical cancer were diagnosed in 2008. Thus, Papanicolaou (Pap) test screening results in a large number of colposcopies for benign conditions.

The major potential harm of screening for cervical cancer lies in the screening detection of many cytologic abnormalities such as atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS) and low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSILs), the majority of which would never progress to cervical cancer. Women with human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive ASCUS or LSILs on Pap testing are usually referred for colposcopy. Histological CIN 2+ is treated with cryotherapy or loop electrosurgical excision procedure. These procedures permanently alter the cervix and have consequences on fertility and pregnancy.[3] Younger women are more likely to acquire HPV infections and be referred for diagnostic workup, and they are more likely to suffer harms from interventions for a condition that often resolves spontaneously.

On the basis of an analysis of screening records from nearly 350,000 women in Bristol, England, investigators projected that 1,000 women would need to be screened for cervical cancer for 35 years to prevent one death from the disease. For each death prevented, the authors estimated that more than 150 women have an abnormal result, more than 80 women are referred for investigation, and more than 50 women have treatment.[4]

References

1. Solomon D, Breen N, McNeel T: Cervical cancer screening rates in the United States and the potential impact of implementation of screening guidelines. CA Cancer J Clin 57 (2): 105-11, 2007 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Davey DD, Woodhouse S, Styer P, et al.: Atypical epithelial cells and specimen adequacy: current laboratory practices of participants in the college of American pathologists interlaboratory comparison program in cervicovaginal cytology. Arch Pathol Lab Med 124 (2): 203-11, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Sadler L, Saftlas A, Wang W, et al.: Treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and risk of preterm delivery. JAMA 291 (17): 2100-6, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Raffle AE, Alden B, Quinn M, et al.: Outcomes of screening to prevent cancer: analysis of cumulative incidence of cervical abnormality and modelling of cases and deaths prevented. BMJ 326 (7395): 901, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Natural History, Incidence, and Mortality

Updated statistics with estimated new cases and deaths for 2025 (cited American Cancer Society as reference 1).

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Cervical cancer is relatively rare but is diagnosed most frequently in women aged 35 to 44 years.[1] It is the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide for both incidence and mortality, with 661,021 new cases and 348,189 deaths in 2022.[2] Most cases of cervical cancer are preventable with routine screening and treatment of precancerous lesions. As a result, most cervical cancer cases are diagnosed in women who live in regions with inadequate screening protocols.

Anatomy

The uterine cervix is contiguous with the uterine body, and it acts as the opening to the body of the uterus. The uterine cervix is a cylindrical, fibrous organ that is an average of 3 to 4 cm in length. The portio of the cervix is visible on vaginal inspection. The opening of the cervix is termed the external os. The os is the beginning of the endocervical canal, which forms the inner aspect of the cervix. At the upper aspect of the endocervical canal is the internal os, a narrowing of the endocervical canal. The narrowing marks the transition from the cervix to the uterine body. The endocervical canal beyond the internal os is termed the endometrial canal.

The cervix is lined by two types of epithelial cells: squamous cells at the outer aspect and columnar, glandular cells along the inner canal. The transition between squamous cells and columnar cells is an area termed the squamocolumnar junction. Most precancerous and cancerous changes arise in this zone.

Enlarge

References

1. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Stat Facts: Cervical Cancer. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 28, 2025.
2. Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al.: Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin 74 (3): 229-263, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts and Figures 2025. American Cancer Society, 2025. Available online. Last accessed January 16, 2025.
4. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Human papillomaviruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 100 (Pt B), 255-296, 2012. Available online. Last accessed January 31, 2025.
5. Schiffman M, Castle PE, Jeronimo J, et al.: Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Lancet 370 (9590): 890-907, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Trottier H, Franco EL: The epidemiology of genital human papillomavirus infection. Vaccine 24 (Suppl 1): S1-15, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Ault KA: Epidemiology and natural history of human papillomavirus infections in the female genital tract. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2006 (Suppl): 40470, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Muñoz N, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, et al.: Role of parity and human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: the IARC multicentric case-control study. Lancet 359 (9312): 1093-101, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Plummer M, Herrero R, Franceschi S, et al.: Smoking and cervical cancer: pooled analysis of the IARC multi-centric case–control study. Cancer Causes Control 14 (9): 805-14, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Moreno V, Bosch FX, Muñoz N, et al.: Effect of oral contraceptives on risk of cervical cancer in women with human papillomavirus infection: the IARC multicentric case-control study. Lancet 359 (9312): 1085-92, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Appleby P, Beral V, Berrington de González A, et al.: Cervical cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data for 16,573 women with cervical cancer and 35,509 women without cervical cancer from 24 epidemiological studies. Lancet 370 (9599): 1609-21, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Abraham AG, D’Souza G, Jing Y, et al.: Invasive cervical cancer risk among HIV-infected women: a North American multicohort collaboration prospective study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 62 (4): 405-13, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Grulich AE, van Leeuwen MT, Falster MO, et al.: Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet 370 (9581): 59-67, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer: Cervical carcinoma and reproductive factors: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 16,563 women with cervical carcinoma and 33,542 women without cervical carcinoma from 25 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 119 (5): 1108-24, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Hoover RN, Hyer M, Pfeiffer RM, et al.: Adverse health outcomes in women exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. N Engl J Med 365 (14): 1304-14, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Dunne EF, Unger ER, Sternberg M, et al.: Prevalence of HPV infection among females in the United States. JAMA 297 (8): 813-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Rodríguez AC, Schiffman M, Herrero R, et al.: Rapid clearance of human papillomavirus and implications for clinical focus on persistent infections. J Natl Cancer Inst 100 (7): 513-7, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Jaisamrarn U, Castellsagué X, Garland SM, et al.: Natural history of progression of HPV infection to cervical lesion or clearance: analysis of the control arm of the large, randomised PATRICIA study. PLoS One 8 (11): e79260, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Brisson J, Morin C, Fortier M, et al.: Risk factors for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: differences between low- and high-grade lesions. Am J Epidemiol 140 (8): 700-10, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Koutsky LA, Holmes KK, Critchlow CW, et al.: A cohort study of the risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or 3 in relation to papillomavirus infection. N Engl J Med 327 (18): 1272-8, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Schiffman MH, Bauer HM, Hoover RN, et al.: Epidemiologic evidence showing that human papillomavirus infection causes most cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. J Natl Cancer Inst 85 (12): 958-64, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Castle PE, Glass AG, Rush BB, et al.: Clinical human papillomavirus detection forecasts cervical cancer risk in women over 18 years of follow-up. J Clin Oncol 30 (25): 3044-50, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Khan MJ, Castle PE, Lorincz AT, et al.: The elevated 10-year risk of cervical precancer and cancer in women with human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 or 18 and the possible utility of type-specific HPV testing in clinical practice. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 (14): 1072-9, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Schlecht NF, Kulaga S, Robitaille J, et al.: Persistent human papillomavirus infection as a predictor of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. JAMA 286 (24): 3106-14, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Muñoz N, Kjaer SK, Sigurdsson K, et al.: Impact of human papillomavirus (HPV)-6/11/16/18 vaccine on all HPV-associated genital diseases in young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 102 (5): 325-39, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Human papillomavirus testing for triage of women with cytologic evidence of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions: baseline data from a randomized trial. The Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance/Low-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions Triage Study (ALTS) Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 92 (5): 397-402, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Wright TC, Massad LS, Dunton CJ, et al.: 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with abnormal cervical cancer screening tests. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (4): 346-55, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Wright TC, Massad LS, Dunton CJ, et al.: 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or adenocarcinoma in situ. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (4): 340-5, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Tabbara S, Saleh AD, Andersen WA, et al.: The Bethesda classification for squamous intraepithelial lesions: histologic, cytologic, and viral correlates. Obstet Gynecol 79 (3): 338-46, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Cuzick J, Terry G, Ho L, et al.: Human papillomavirus type 16 in cervical smears as predictor of high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia [corrected] Lancet 339 (8799): 959-60, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Richart RM, Wright TC: Controversies in the management of low-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer 71 (4 Suppl): 1413-21, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. Klaes R, Woerner SM, Ridder R, et al.: Detection of high-risk cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer by amplification of transcripts derived from integrated papillomavirus oncogenes. Cancer Res 59 (24): 6132-6, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Katki HA, Kinney WK, Fetterman B, et al.: Cervical cancer risk for women undergoing concurrent testing for human papillomavirus and cervical cytology: a population-based study in routine clinical practice. Lancet Oncol 12 (7): 663-72, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. Naucler P, Ryd W, Törnberg S, et al.: Efficacy of HPV DNA testing with cytology triage and/or repeat HPV DNA testing in primary cervical cancer screening. J Natl Cancer Inst 101 (2): 88-99, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Castle PE, Stoler MH, Wright TC, et al.: Performance of carcinogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) testing and HPV16 or HPV18 genotyping for cervical cancer screening of women aged 25 years and older: a subanalysis of the ATHENA study. Lancet Oncol 12 (9): 880-90, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. The 1988 Bethesda System for reporting cervical/vaginal cytological diagnoses. National Cancer Institute Workshop. JAMA 262 (7): 931-4, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Delgado G, Bundy B, Zaino R, et al.: Prospective surgical-pathological study of disease-free interval in patients with stage IB squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Gynecol Oncol 38 (3): 352-7, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
38. Zaino RJ, Ward S, Delgado G, et al.: Histopathologic predictors of the behavior of surgically treated stage IB squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. A Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Cancer 69 (7): 1750-8, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
39. Burghardt E, Baltzer J, Tulusan AH, et al.: Results of surgical treatment of 1028 cervical cancers studied with volumetry. Cancer 70 (3): 648-55, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Stehman FB, Bundy BN, DiSaia PJ, et al.: Carcinoma of the cervix treated with radiation therapy. I. A multi-variate analysis of prognostic variables in the Gynecologic Oncology Group. Cancer 67 (11): 2776-85, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Steren A, Nguyen HN, Averette HE, et al.: Radical hysterectomy for stage IB adenocarcinoma of the cervix: the University of Miami experience. Gynecol Oncol 48 (3): 355-9, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Park JY, Kim DY, Kim JH, et al.: Outcomes after radical hysterectomy in patients with early-stage adenocarcinoma of uterine cervix. Br J Cancer 102 (12): 1692-8, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
43. Eifel PJ, Burke TW, Morris M, et al.: Adenocarcinoma as an independent risk factor for disease recurrence in patients with stage IB cervical carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 59 (1): 38-44, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
44. Lee YY, Choi CH, Kim TJ, et al.: A comparison of pure adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix after radical hysterectomy in stage IB-IIA. Gynecol Oncol 120 (3): 439-43, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
45. Galic V, Herzog TJ, Lewin SN, et al.: Prognostic significance of adenocarcinoma histology in women with cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 125 (2): 287-91, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
46. Gallup DG, Harper RH, Stock RJ: Poor prognosis in patients with adenosquamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. Obstet Gynecol 65 (3): 416-22, 1985. [PUBMED Abstract]
47. Yazigi R, Sandstad J, Munoz AK, et al.: Adenosquamous carcinoma of the cervix: prognosis in stage IB. Obstet Gynecol 75 (6): 1012-5, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
48. Bethwaite P, Yeong ML, Holloway L, et al.: The prognosis of adenosquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 99 (9): 745-50, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
49. Fagundes H, Perez CA, Grigsby PW, et al.: Distant metastases after irradiation alone in carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 24 (2): 197-204, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
50. Monk BJ, Tian C, Rose PG, et al.: Which clinical/pathologic factors matter in the era of chemoradiation as treatment for locally advanced cervical carcinoma? Analysis of two Gynecologic Oncology Group (GOG) trials. Gynecol Oncol 105 (2): 427-33, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
51. Maiman M, Fruchter RG, Guy L, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and invasive cervical carcinoma. Cancer 71 (2): 402-6, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
52. Bourhis J, Le MG, Barrois M, et al.: Prognostic value of c-myc proto-oncogene overexpression in early invasive carcinoma of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 8 (11): 1789-96, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
53. Strang P, Eklund G, Stendahl U, et al.: S-phase rate as a predictor of early recurrences in carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Anticancer Res 7 (4B): 807-10, 1987 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
54. Burger RA, Monk BJ, Kurosaki T, et al.: Human papillomavirus type 18: association with poor prognosis in early stage cervical cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 88 (19): 1361-8, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
55. Lai CH, Chang CJ, Huang HJ, et al.: Role of human papillomavirus genotype in prognosis of early-stage cervical cancer undergoing primary surgery. J Clin Oncol 25 (24): 3628-34, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
56. Silva IH, Nogueira-Silva C, Figueiredo T, et al.: The impact of GGH -401C>T polymorphism on cisplatin-based chemoradiotherapy response and survival in cervical cancer. Gene 512 (2): 247-50, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
57. Ansink A, de Barros Lopes A, Naik R, et al.: Recurrent stage IB cervical carcinoma: evaluation of the effectiveness of routine follow up surveillance. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 103 (11): 1156-8, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
58. Duyn A, Van Eijkeren M, Kenter G, et al.: Recurrent cervical cancer: detection and prognosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 81 (4): 351-5, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
59. Morice P, Deyrolle C, Rey A, et al.: Value of routine follow-up procedures for patients with stage I/II cervical cancer treated with combined surgery-radiation therapy. Ann Oncol 15 (2): 218-23, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]

Squamous cell (epidermoid) carcinoma makes up approximately 90% of cervical cancers, and adenocarcinoma makes up approximately 10% of cervical cancers. Adenosquamous and small cell carcinomas are relatively rare. Primary sarcomas of the cervix and primary and secondary malignant lymphomas of the cervix have also been reported.

Carcinoma of the cervix can spread via local invasion, the regional lymphatics, or bloodstream. Tumor dissemination is generally a function of the extent and invasiveness of the local lesion. While cancer of the cervix generally progresses in an orderly manner, occasionally a small tumor with distant metastasis is seen. For this reason, patients must be carefully evaluated for metastatic disease.

Pretreatment surgical staging is the most accurate method to determine the extent of disease,[1] but there is little evidence to demonstrate overall improved survival with routine surgical staging; the staging is usually performed only as part of a clinical trial. Pretreatment surgical staging in bulky but locally curable disease may be indicated in select cases when a nonsurgical search for metastatic disease is negative. If abnormal nodes are detected by computed tomography (CT) scan or lymphangiography, fine-needle aspiration should be negative before a surgical staging procedure is performed.

Tests and procedures to evaluate the extent of the disease include:

FIGO Stage Groupings and Definitions

The Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO) and the American Joint Committee on Cancer have designated staging to define cervical cancer; the FIGO system is most commonly used.[3,4]

Table 1. Definitions of FIGO Stage Ia

Stage	Description	Illustration
FIGO = Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique.
aAdapted from FIGO Committee for Gynecologic Oncology.[3]
bImaging and pathology can be used, when available, to supplement clinical findings with respect to tumor size and extent, in all stages. Pathological findings supersede imaging and clinical findings.
cThe involvement of vascular/lymphatic spaces should not change the staging. The lateral extent of the lesion is no longer considered.
I	The carcinoma is strictly confined to the cervix (extension to the corpus should be disregarded).
IA	Invasive carcinoma that can be diagnosed only by microscopy, with maximum depth of invasion ≤5 mm.b	Enlarge
–IA1	–Measured stromal invasion ≤3 mm in depth.
–IA2	–Measured stromal invasion >3 mm and ≤5 mm in depth.
IB	Invasive carcinoma with measured deepest invasion >5 mm (greater than stage IA); lesion limited to the cervix uteri with size measured by maximum tumor diameter.c
–IB1	–Invasive carcinoma >5 mm depth of stromal invasion and ≤2 cm in greatest dimension.	Enlarge
–IB2	–Invasive carcinoma >2 cm and ≤4 cm in greatest dimension.	Enlarge
–IB3	–Invasive carcinoma >4 cm in greatest dimension.

Table 2. Definitions of FIGO Stage IIa

Stage	Description	Illustration
FIGO = Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique.
aAdapted from FIGO Committee for Gynecologic Oncology.[3]
II	The cervical carcinoma invades beyond the uterus but has not extended onto the lower third of the vagina or to the pelvic wall.	Enlarge
IIA	Involvement limited to the upper two-thirds of the vagina without parametrial involvement.
–IIA1	–Invasive carcinoma ≤4 cm in greatest dimension.
–IIA2	–Invasive carcinoma >4 cm in greatest dimension.
IIB	With parametrial involvement but not up to the pelvic wall.

Table 3. Definitions of FIGO Stage IIIa

Stage	Description	Illustration
FIGO = Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique.
aAdapted from FIGO Committee for Gynecologic Oncology.[3]
bIsolated tumor cells do not change the stage, but their presence should be recorded.
cAdding notation of r (imaging) and p (pathology) to indicate the findings that are used to allocate the case to stage IIIC. For example, if imaging indicates pelvic lymph node metastasis, the stage allocation would be stage IIIC1r; if confirmed by pathological findings, it would be stage IIIC1p. The type of imaging modality or pathology technique used should always be documented. When in doubt, the lower staging should be assigned.
III	The carcinoma involves the lower third of the vagina and/or extends to the pelvic wall and/or causes hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney and/or involves pelvic and/or para-aortic lymph nodes.
IIIA	Carcinoma involves the lower third of the vagina, with no extension to the pelvic wall.	Enlarge
IIIB	Extension to the pelvic wall and/or hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney (unless known to be due to another cause).	Enlarge
IIIC	Involvement of pelvic and/or para-aortic lymph nodes (including micrometastases)b, irrespective of tumor size and extent (with r and p notations).c	Enlarge
–IIIC1	–Pelvic lymph node metastasis only.
–IIIC2	–Para-aortic lymph node metastasis.

Table 4. Definitions of FIGO Stage IVa

Stage	Description	Illustration
FIGO = Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique.
aAdapted from FIGO Committee for Gynecologic Oncology.[3]
IV	The carcinoma has extended beyond the true pelvis or has involved (biopsy proven) the mucosa of the bladder or rectum. A bullous edema, as such, does not permit a case to be allotted to stage IV.
IVA	Spread of the growth to adjacent pelvic organs.	Enlarge
IVB	Spread to distant organs.	Enlarge

References

1. Gold MA, Tian C, Whitney CW, et al.: Surgical versus radiographic determination of para-aortic lymph node metastases before chemoradiation for locally advanced cervical carcinoma: a Gynecologic Oncology Group Study. Cancer 112 (9): 1954-63, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Epstein E, Testa A, Gaurilcikas A, et al.: Early-stage cervical cancer: tumor delineation by magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound – a European multicenter trial. Gynecol Oncol 128 (3): 449-53, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Bhatla N, Aoki D, Sharma DN, et al.: Cancer of the cervix uteri: 2021 update. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 155 (Suppl 1): 28-44, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Olawaiye AB, Mutch DG, Bhosale P, et al.: Cervix uteri. In: Goodman KA, Gollub M, Eng C, et al.: AJCC Cancer Staging System. Version 9. American Joint Committee on Cancer; American College of Surgeons, 2020.

Patterns-of-care studies clearly demonstrate the negative prognostic effect of increasing tumor volume and spread pattern.[1] Treatment, therefore, may vary within each stage as the individual stages are currently defined by Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO).

References

1. Lanciano RM, Won M, Hanks GE: A reappraisal of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics staging system for cervical cancer. A study of patterns of care. Cancer 69 (2): 482-7, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Whitney CW, Sause W, Bundy BN, et al.: Randomized comparison of fluorouracil plus cisplatin versus hydroxyurea as an adjunct to radiation therapy in stage IIB-IVA carcinoma of the cervix with negative para-aortic lymph nodes: a Gynecologic Oncology Group and Southwest Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1339-48, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Morris M, Eifel PJ, Lu J, et al.: Pelvic radiation with concurrent chemotherapy compared with pelvic and para-aortic radiation for high-risk cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1137-43, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Rose PG, Bundy BN, Watkins EB, et al.: Concurrent cisplatin-based radiotherapy and chemotherapy for locally advanced cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1144-53, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Keys HM, Bundy BN, Stehman FB, et al.: Cisplatin, radiation, and adjuvant hysterectomy compared with radiation and adjuvant hysterectomy for bulky stage IB cervical carcinoma. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1154-61, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Peters WA, Liu PY, Barrett RJ, et al.: Concurrent chemotherapy and pelvic radiation therapy compared with pelvic radiation therapy alone as adjuvant therapy after radical surgery in high-risk early-stage cancer of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 18 (8): 1606-13, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Pearcey R, Brundage M, Drouin P, et al.: Phase III trial comparing radical radiotherapy with and without cisplatin chemotherapy in patients with advanced squamous cell cancer of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 20 (4): 966-72, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Thomas GM: Improved treatment for cervical cancer–concurrent chemotherapy and radiotherapy. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1198-200, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Rose PG, Bundy BN: Chemoradiation for locally advanced cervical cancer: does it help? J Clin Oncol 20 (4): 891-3, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Chemoradiotherapy for Cervical Cancer Meta-Analysis Collaboration: Reducing uncertainties about the effects of chemoradiotherapy for cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data from 18 randomized trials. J Clin Oncol 26 (35): 5802-12, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Sharma BB, Rai K, Blunt H, et al.: Pathogenic DPYD Variants and Treatment-Related Mortality in Patients Receiving Fluoropyrimidine Chemotherapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Oncologist 26 (12): 1008-1016, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Lam SW, Guchelaar HJ, Boven E: The role of pharmacogenetics in capecitabine efficacy and toxicity. Cancer Treat Rev 50: 9-22, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Shakeel F, Fang F, Kwon JW, et al.: Patients carrying DPYD variant alleles have increased risk of severe toxicity and related treatment modifications during fluoropyrimidine chemotherapy. Pharmacogenomics 22 (3): 145-155, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Amstutz U, Henricks LM, Offer SM, et al.: Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) Guideline for Dihydropyrimidine Dehydrogenase Genotype and Fluoropyrimidine Dosing: 2017 Update. Clin Pharmacol Ther 103 (2): 210-216, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Henricks LM, Lunenburg CATC, de Man FM, et al.: DPYD genotype-guided dose individualisation of fluoropyrimidine therapy in patients with cancer: a prospective safety analysis. Lancet Oncol 19 (11): 1459-1467, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Lau-Min KS, Varughese LA, Nelson MN, et al.: Preemptive pharmacogenetic testing to guide chemotherapy dosing in patients with gastrointestinal malignancies: a qualitative study of barriers to implementation. BMC Cancer 22 (1): 47, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Brooks GA, Tapp S, Daly AT, et al.: Cost-effectiveness of DPYD Genotyping Prior to Fluoropyrimidine-based Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Colon Cancer. Clin Colorectal Cancer 21 (3): e189-e195, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Baker SD, Bates SE, Brooks GA, et al.: DPYD Testing: Time to Put Patient Safety First. J Clin Oncol 41 (15): 2701-2705, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Eifel PJ, Burke TW, Delclos L, et al.: Early stage I adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix: treatment results in patients with tumors less than or equal to 4 cm in diameter. Gynecol Oncol 41 (3): 199-205, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Kovalic JJ, Grigsby PW, Perez CA, et al.: Cervical stump carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 20 (5): 933-8, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]

Consensus guidelines have been issued for managing women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or adenocarcinoma in situ.[1] Properly treated, tumor control of in situ cervical carcinoma should be nearly 100%. Either expert colposcopic-directed biopsy or cone biopsy is required to exclude invasive disease before therapy is undertaken. A correlation between cytology and colposcopic-directed biopsy is also necessary before local ablative therapy is done. Unrecognized invasive disease treated with inadequate ablative therapy may be the most common cause of failure.[2] Failure to identify the disease, lack of correlation between the Pap smear and colposcopic findings, adenocarcinoma in situ, or extension of disease into the endocervical canal makes a laser, loop, or cold-knife conization mandatory.

The choice of treatment depends on the extent of disease and several patient factors, including age, cell type, desire to preserve fertility, and medical condition.

References

1. Wright TC, Massad LS, Dunton CJ, et al.: 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or adenocarcinoma in situ. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197 (4): 340-5, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Shumsky AG, Stuart GC, Nation J: Carcinoma of the cervix following conservative management of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 53 (1): 50-4, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Wright VC, Chapman W: Intraepithelial neoplasia of the lower female genital tract: etiology, investigation, and management. Semin Surg Oncol 8 (4): 180-90, 1992 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Bloss JD: The use of electrosurgical techniques in the management of premalignant diseases of the vulva, vagina, and cervix: an excisional rather than an ablative approach. Am J Obstet Gynecol 169 (5): 1081-5, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Tsukamoto N: Treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia with the carbon dioxide laser. Gynecol Oncol 21 (3): 331-6, 1985. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Girardi F, Heydarfadai M, Koroschetz F, et al.: Cold-knife conization versus loop excision: histopathologic and clinical results of a randomized trial. Gynecol Oncol 55 (3 Pt 1): 368-70, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Wright TC, Gagnon S, Richart RM, et al.: Treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia using the loop electrosurgical excision procedure. Obstet Gynecol 79 (2): 173-8, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Naumann RW, Bell MC, Alvarez RD, et al.: LLETZ is an acceptable alternative to diagnostic cold-knife conization. Gynecol Oncol 55 (2): 224-8, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Duesing N, Schwarz J, Choschzick M, et al.: Assessment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) with colposcopic biopsy and efficacy of loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP). Arch Gynecol Obstet 286 (6): 1549-54, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Widrich T, Kennedy AW, Myers TM, et al.: Adenocarcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix: management and outcome. Gynecol Oncol 61 (3): 304-8, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Eddy GL, Spiegel GW, Creasman WT: Adverse effect of electrosurgical loop excision on assignment of FIGO stage in cervical cancer: report of two cases. Gynecol Oncol 55 (2): 313-7, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Massad LS: New guidelines on cervical cancer screening: more than just the end of annual Pap testing. J Low Genit Tract Dis 16 (3): 172-4, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Grigsby PW, Perez CA: Radiotherapy alone for medically inoperable carcinoma of the cervix: stage IA and carcinoma in situ. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 21 (2): 375-8, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Sevin BU, Nadji M, Averette HE, et al.: Microinvasive carcinoma of the cervix. Cancer 70 (8): 2121-8, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Jones WB, Mercer GO, Lewis JL, et al.: Early invasive carcinoma of the cervix. Gynecol Oncol 51 (1): 26-32, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Ramirez PT, Frumovitz M, Pareja R, et al.: Minimally Invasive versus Abdominal Radical Hysterectomy for Cervical Cancer. N Engl J Med 379 (20): 1895-1904, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Melamed A, Margul DJ, Chen L, et al.: Survival after Minimally Invasive Radical Hysterectomy for Early-Stage Cervical Cancer. N Engl J Med 379 (20): 1905-1914, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Covens A, Shaw P, Murphy J, et al.: Is radical trachelectomy a safe alternative to radical hysterectomy for patients with stage IA-B carcinoma of the cervix? Cancer 86 (11): 2273-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Dargent D, Martin X, Sacchetoni A, et al.: Laparoscopic vaginal radical trachelectomy: a treatment to preserve the fertility of cervical carcinoma patients. Cancer 88 (8): 1877-82, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Plante M, Renaud MC, Hoskins IA, et al.: Vaginal radical trachelectomy: a valuable fertility-preserving option in the management of early-stage cervical cancer. A series of 50 pregnancies and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 98 (1): 3-10, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Shepherd JH, Spencer C, Herod J, et al.: Radical vaginal trachelectomy as a fertility-sparing procedure in women with early-stage cervical cancer-cumulative pregnancy rate in a series of 123 women. BJOG 113 (6): 719-24, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Wethington SL, Cibula D, Duska LR, et al.: An international series on abdominal radical trachelectomy: 101 patients and 28 pregnancies. Int J Gynecol Cancer 22 (7): 1251-7, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Grigsby PW, Perez CA: Radiotherapy alone for medically inoperable carcinoma of the cervix: stage IA and carcinoma in situ. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 21 (2): 375-8, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Perez CA, Grigsby PW, Nene SM, et al.: Effect of tumor size on the prognosis of carcinoma of the uterine cervix treated with irradiation alone. Cancer 69 (11): 2796-806, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Landoni F, Maneo A, Colombo A, et al.: Randomised study of radical surgery versus radiotherapy for stage Ib-IIa cervical cancer. Lancet 350 (9077): 535-40, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Eifel PJ, Burke TW, Delclos L, et al.: Early stage I adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix: treatment results in patients with tumors less than or equal to 4 cm in diameter. Gynecol Oncol 41 (3): 199-205, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Morris M, Eifel PJ, Lu J, et al.: Pelvic radiation with concurrent chemotherapy compared with pelvic and para-aortic radiation for high-risk cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1137-43, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Keys HM, Bundy BN, Stehman FB, et al.: Cisplatin, radiation, and adjuvant hysterectomy compared with radiation and adjuvant hysterectomy for bulky stage IB cervical carcinoma. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1154-61, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Peters WA, Liu PY, Barrett RJ, et al.: Concurrent chemotherapy and pelvic radiation therapy compared with pelvic radiation therapy alone as adjuvant therapy after radical surgery in high-risk early-stage cancer of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 18 (8): 1606-13, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Thomas GM: Improved treatment for cervical cancer–concurrent chemotherapy and radiotherapy. N Engl J Med 340 (15): 1198-200, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Pearcey R, Brundage M, Drouin P, et al.: Phase III trial comparing radical radiotherapy with and without cisplatin chemotherapy in patients with advanced squamous cell cancer of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 20 (4): 966-72, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Rose PG, Bundy BN: Chemoradiation for locally advanced cervical cancer: does it help? J Clin Oncol 20 (4): 891-3, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Chemoradiotherapy for Cervical Cancer Meta-Analysis Collaboration: Reducing uncertainties about the effects of chemoradiotherapy for cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data from 18 randomized trials. J Clin Oncol 26 (35): 5802-12, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Nag S, Chao C, Erickson B, et al.: The American Brachytherapy Society recommendations for low-dose-rate brachytherapy for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 52 (1): 33-48, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Nag S, Erickson B, Thomadsen B, et al.: The American Brachytherapy Society recommendations for high-dose-rate brachytherapy for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48 (1): 201-11, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Patel FD, Sharma SC, Negi PS, et al.: Low dose rate vs. high dose rate brachytherapy in the treatment of carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a clinical trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 28 (2): 335-41, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Hareyama M, Sakata K, Oouchi A, et al.: High-dose-rate versus low-dose-rate intracavitary therapy for carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a randomized trial. Cancer 94 (1): 117-24, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Lertsanguansinchai P, Lertbutsayanukul C, Shotelersuk K, et al.: Phase III randomized trial comparing LDR and HDR brachytherapy in treatment of cervical carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 59 (5): 1424-31, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Thoms WW, Eifel PJ, Smith TL, et al.: Bulky endocervical carcinoma: a 23-year experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 23 (3): 491-9, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Downey GO, Potish RA, Adcock LL, et al.: Pretreatment surgical staging in cervical carcinoma: therapeutic efficacy of pelvic lymph node resection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 160 (5 Pt 1): 1055-61, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Vigliotti AP, Wen BC, Hussey DH, et al.: Extended field irradiation for carcinoma of the uterine cervix with positive periaortic nodes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 23 (3): 501-9, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Weiser EB, Bundy BN, Hoskins WJ, et al.: Extraperitoneal versus transperitoneal selective paraaortic lymphadenectomy in the pretreatment surgical staging of advanced cervical carcinoma (a Gynecologic Oncology Group study). Gynecol Oncol 33 (3): 283-9, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Fine BA, Hempling RE, Piver MS, et al.: Severe radiation morbidity in carcinoma of the cervix: impact of pretherapy surgical staging and previous surgery. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 31 (4): 717-23, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Estape RE, Angioli R, Madrigal M, et al.: Close vaginal margins as a prognostic factor after radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol 68 (3): 229-32, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Ramirez PT, Frumovitz M, Pareja R, et al.: Minimally Invasive versus Abdominal Radical Hysterectomy for Cervical Cancer. N Engl J Med 379 (20): 1895-1904, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Melamed A, Margul DJ, Chen L, et al.: Survival after Minimally Invasive Radical Hysterectomy for Early-Stage Cervical Cancer. N Engl J Med 379 (20): 1905-1914, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Sedlis A, Bundy BN, Rotman MZ, et al.: A randomized trial of pelvic radiation therapy versus no further therapy in selected patients with stage IB carcinoma of the cervix after radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy: A Gynecologic Oncology Group Study. Gynecol Oncol 73 (2): 177-83, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Cunningham MJ, Dunton CJ, Corn B, et al.: Extended-field radiation therapy in early-stage cervical carcinoma: survival and complications. Gynecol Oncol 43 (1): 51-4, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Rotman M, Pajak TF, Choi K, et al.: Prophylactic extended-field irradiation of para-aortic lymph nodes in stages IIB and bulky IB and IIA cervical carcinomas. Ten-year treatment results of RTOG 79-20. JAMA 274 (5): 387-93, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Poorvu PD, Sadow CA, Townamchai K, et al.: Duodenal and other gastrointestinal toxicity in cervical and endometrial cancer treated with extended-field intensity modulated radiation therapy to paraaortic lymph nodes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 85 (5): 1262-8, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Covens A, Shaw P, Murphy J, et al.: Is radical trachelectomy a safe alternative to radical hysterectomy for patients with stage IA-B carcinoma of the cervix? Cancer 86 (11): 2273-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Dargent D, Martin X, Sacchetoni A, et al.: Laparoscopic vaginal radical trachelectomy: a treatment to preserve the fertility of cervical carcinoma patients. Cancer 88 (8): 1877-82, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Plante M, Renaud MC, Hoskins IA, et al.: Vaginal radical trachelectomy: a valuable fertility-preserving option in the management of early-stage cervical cancer. A series of 50 pregnancies and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 98 (1): 3-10, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Shepherd JH, Spencer C, Herod J, et al.: Radical vaginal trachelectomy as a fertility-sparing procedure in women with early-stage cervical cancer-cumulative pregnancy rate in a series of 123 women. BJOG 113 (6): 719-24, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. Wethington SL, Cibula D, Duska LR, et al.: An international series on abdominal radical trachelectomy: 101 patients and 28 pregnancies. Int J Gynecol Cancer 22 (7): 1251-7, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Lorusso D, Xiang Y, Hasegawa K, et al.: Pembrolizumab or placebo with chemoradiotherapy followed by pembrolizumab or placebo for newly diagnosed, high-risk, locally advanced cervical cancer (ENGOT-cx11/GOG-3047/KEYNOTE-A18): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 clinical trial. Lancet 403 (10434): 1341-1350, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. Ferrandina G, Margariti PA, Smaniotto D, et al.: Long-term analysis of clinical outcome and complications in locally advanced cervical cancer patients administered concomitant chemoradiation followed by radical surgery. Gynecol Oncol 119 (3): 404-10, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Ferrandina G, Distefano MG, De Vincenzo R, et al.: Paclitaxel, epirubicin, and cisplatin (TEP) regimen as neoadjuvant treatment in locally advanced cervical cancer: long-term results. Gynecol Oncol 128 (3): 518-23, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. Zanaboni F, Grijuela B, Giudici S, et al.: Weekly topotecan and cisplatin (TOPOCIS) as neo-adjuvant chemotherapy for locally-advanced squamous cervical carcinoma: Results of a phase II multicentric study. Eur J Cancer 49 (5): 1065-72, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Manci N, Marchetti C, Di Tucci C, et al.: A prospective phase II study of topotecan (Hycamtin®) and cisplatin as neoadjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 122 (2): 285-90, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
38. Gong L, Lou JY, Wang P, et al.: Clinical evaluation of neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical surgery in the management of stage IB2-IIB cervical cancer. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 117 (1): 23-6, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
39. Benedetti-Panici P, Greggi S, Colombo A, et al.: Neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radical surgery versus exclusive radiotherapy in locally advanced squamous cell cervical cancer: results from the Italian multicenter randomized study. J Clin Oncol 20 (1): 179-88, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Chen MF, Tseng CJ, Tseng CC, et al.: Adjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy with intensity-modulated pelvic radiotherapy after surgery for high-risk, early stage cervical cancer patients. Cancer J 14 (3): 200-6, 2008 May-Jun. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Hasselle MD, Rose BS, Kochanski JD, et al.: Clinical outcomes of intensity-modulated pelvic radiation therapy for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 80 (5): 1436-45, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Folkert MR, Shih KK, Abu-Rustum NR, et al.: Postoperative pelvic intensity-modulated radiotherapy and concurrent chemotherapy in intermediate- and high-risk cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 128 (2): 288-93, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]