Mesothelioma is extremely rare in children and adolescents, with only 2% to 5% of patients presenting during the first two decades of life.[1] Fewer than 300 cases in children have been reported.[2] An analysis from the National Cancer Database identified 46 pediatric patients (aged 0–21 years) and 524 young adult patients (aged 22–39 years) with mesothelioma (363 peritoneal and 207 pleural).[3] Patients with peritoneal mesothelioma were more frequently female (63.1%). The mean overall survival was higher in patients with peritoneal mesothelioma (125 months) than in those with pleural mesothelioma (69 months), which remained significant after stratification of pediatric and young adult patients.

In adults, increased mesothelioma risk is associated with inherited BAP1 variants, exposures to asbestos, and exposures to radiation therapy during previous cancer treatments. These risk factors are rare in pediatric patients, and there are limited data that address cancer risk in children with asbestos exposures. The amount of radiation exposure required to develop cancer is also unknown.[4–8]

Mesothelioma may present in the thoracic/pleural region or in the peritoneum. These presentations have different clinical courses and prognoses. This cancer can involve the membranous coverings of the lung, the heart, or the abdominal organs.[9–11]; [12][Level of evidence C1] Mesothelioma can spread onto organ surfaces without invading far into the underlying tissue. This cancer may also spread to regional or distant lymph nodes.

Benign and malignant mesotheliomas cannot be differentiated using histological criteria. Benign mesotheliomas are exceedingly rare and often occur in the peritoneal cavity. A poor prognosis is associated with mesotheliomas that are diffuse and invasive or with mesotheliomas that recur.

References

1. Nagata S, Nakanishi R: Malignant pleural mesothelioma with cavity formation in a 16-year-old boy. Chest 127 (2): 655-7, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Rosas-Salazar C, Gunawardena SW, Spahr JE: Malignant pleural mesothelioma in a child with ataxia-telangiectasia. Pediatr Pulmonol 48 (1): 94-7, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Nofi CP, Roberts BK, Rich BS, et al.: Pediatric, Adolescent and Young Adult (AYA) Peritoneal and Pleural Mesothelioma: A National Cancer Database Review. J Pediatr Surg 59 (6): 1113-1120, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Orbach D, André N, Brecht IB, et al.: Mesothelioma in children and adolescents: the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors (EXPeRT) contribution. Eur J Cancer 140: 63-70, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Tsao AS, Wistuba I, Roth JA, et al.: Malignant pleural mesothelioma. J Clin Oncol 27 (12): 2081-90, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Carbone M, Ferris LK, Baumann F, et al.: BAP1 cancer syndrome: malignant mesothelioma, uveal and cutaneous melanoma, and MBAITs. J Transl Med 10: 179, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Janes SM, Alrifai D, Fennell DA: Perspectives on the Treatment of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma. N Engl J Med 385 (13): 1207-1218, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Pappo AS, Santana VM, Furman WL, et al.: Post-irradiation malignant mesothelioma. Cancer 79 (1): 192-3, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Kelsey A: Mesothelioma in childhood. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 11 (5): 461-2, 1994 Sep-Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Moran CA, Albores-Saavedra J, Suster S: Primary peritoneal mesotheliomas in children: a clinicopathological and immunohistochemical study of eight cases. Histopathology 52 (7): 824-30, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Cioffredi LA, Jänne PA, Jackman DM: Treatment of peritoneal mesothelioma in pediatric patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (1): 127-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Vermersch S, Arnaud A, Orbach D, et al.: Multicystic and diffuse malignant peritoneal mesothelioma in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (6): e28286, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]

Malignant mesotheliomas found in children, adolescents, and young adults are not often associated with asbestos exposures. This differs from most malignant mesotheliomas seen in adults. Recurring ALK gene fusions have been described in children and adolescents with mesothelioma. These fusions occur most often in female patients with peritoneal primary mesotheliomas. ALK gene fusions involve various partner genes, including STRN, TPM1, and EML4.[1]

References

1. Argani P, Lian DWQ, Agaimy A, et al.: Pediatric Mesothelioma With ALK Fusions: A Molecular and Pathologic Study of 5 Cases. Am J Surg Pathol 45 (5): 653-661, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]

In suspicious cases of malignant mesotheliomas, diagnostic thoracoscopy should be considered to confirm the diagnosis.[1] Cross-sectional imaging may suggest the diagnosis of peritoneal mesothelioma, but diagnostic biopsy by laparoscopy or open laparotomy is required.

References

1. Nagata S, Nakanishi R: Malignant pleural mesothelioma with cavity formation in a 16-year-old boy. Chest 127 (2): 655-7, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Malignant Mesothelioma Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for pediatric patients with malignant pleural mesotheliomas are controversial. Outcomes are often poor in these individuals despite treatment with radical surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Treatments that use newer chemotherapy agents and immunotherapies are under investigation.[1]

Treatment options for childhood malignant mesothelioma include the following:

For more information, see Malignant Mesothelioma Treatment.

References

1. Carbone M, Adusumilli PS, Alexander HR, et al.: Mesothelioma: Scientific clues for prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. CA Cancer J Clin 69 (5): 402-429, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Maziak DE, Gagliardi A, Haynes AE, et al.: Surgical management of malignant pleural mesothelioma: a systematic review and evidence summary. Lung Cancer 48 (2): 157-69, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Krug LM, Pass HI, Rusch VW, et al.: Multicenter phase II trial of neoadjuvant pemetrexed plus cisplatin followed by extrapleural pneumonectomy and radiation for malignant pleural mesothelioma. J Clin Oncol 27 (18): 3007-13, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Treasure T: What is the best approach for surgery of malignant pleural mesothelioma? It is to put our efforts into obtaining trustworthy evidence for practice. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 151 (2): 307-9, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Orbach D, André N, Brecht IB, et al.: Mesothelioma in children and adolescents: the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors (EXPeRT) contribution. Eur J Cancer 140: 63-70, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Nguyen D, Sugarbaker DJ, Burt BM: Therapeutic R2 resection for pleural mesothelioma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 155 (6): 2734-2735, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Wald O, Sugarbaker DJ: New Concepts in the Treatment of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma. Annu Rev Med 69: 365-377, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Malekzadeh P, Good M, Hughes MS: Cytoreductive surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) with cisplatin in pediatric patients with peritoneal mesothelioma: a single institution experience and long term follow up. Int J Hyperthermia 38 (1): 326-331, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Rüschoff JH, Gradhand E, Kahraman A, et al.: STRN -ALK Rearranged Malignant Peritoneal Mesothelioma With Dramatic Response Following Ceritinib Treatment. JCO Precis Oncol 3: , 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

MEN syndromes are familial disorders characterized by neoplastic changes that affect multiple endocrine organs.[1] Changes may include hyperplasia, benign adenomas, and carcinomas.

There are three types of MEN syndromes:

For more information about MEN syndromes, see Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias and Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2 (MEN2).

References

1. de Krijger RR: Endocrine tumor syndromes in infancy and childhood. Endocr Pathol 15 (3): 223-6, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]

The main clinical features and genetic alterations of the multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndromes are shown in Table 1.

References

1. Thakker RV: Multiple endocrine neoplasia–syndromes of the twentieth century. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 (8): 2617-20, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Thakker RV: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1). Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 24 (3): 355-70, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Vannucci L, Marini F, Giusti F, et al.: MEN1 in children and adolescents: Data from patients of a regional referral center for hereditary endocrine tumors. Endocrine 59 (2): 438-448, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Thakker RV, Newey PJ, Walls GV, et al.: Clinical practice guidelines for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (9): 2990-3011, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Goudet P, Dalac A, Le Bras M, et al.: MEN1 disease occurring before 21 years old: a 160-patient cohort study from the Groupe d’étude des Tumeurs Endocrines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100 (4): 1568-77, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Romero Arenas MA, Morris LF, Rich TA, et al.: Preoperative multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 diagnosis improves the surgical outcomes of pediatric patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. J Pediatr Surg 49 (4): 546-50, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Farnebo F, Teh BT, Kytölä S, et al.: Alterations of the MEN1 gene in sporadic parathyroid tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 (8): 2627-30, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Field M, Shanley S, Kirk J: Inherited cancer susceptibility syndromes in paediatric practice. J Paediatr Child Health 43 (4): 219-29, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Sanso GE, Domene HM, Garcia R, et al.: Very early detection of RET proto-oncogene mutation is crucial for preventive thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 children: presence of C-cell malignant disease in asymptomatic carriers. Cancer 94 (2): 323-30, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Alsanea O, Clark OH: Familial thyroid cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 13 (1): 44-51, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Fitze G: Management of patients with hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma. Eur J Pediatr Surg 14 (6): 375-83, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Puñales MK, da Rocha AP, Meotti C, et al.: Clinical and oncological features of children and young adults with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Thyroid 18 (12): 1261-8, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Wells SA, Asa SL, Dralle H, et al.: Revised American Thyroid Association guidelines for the management of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 25 (6): 567-610, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Waguespack SG, Rich TA, Perrier ND, et al.: Management of medullary thyroid carcinoma and MEN2 syndromes in childhood. Nat Rev Endocrinol 7 (10): 596-607, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Decker RA, Peacock ML, Watson P: Hirschsprung disease in MEN 2A: increased spectrum of RET exon 10 genotypes and strong genotype-phenotype correlation. Hum Mol Genet 7 (1): 129-34, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Eng C, Clayton D, Schuffenecker I, et al.: The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. International RET mutation consortium analysis. JAMA 276 (19): 1575-9, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Fialkowski EA, DeBenedetti MK, Moley JF, et al.: RET proto-oncogene testing in infants presenting with Hirschsprung disease identifies 2 new multiple endocrine neoplasia 2A kindreds. J Pediatr Surg 43 (1): 188-90, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Skába R, Dvoráková S, Václavíková E, et al.: The risk of medullary thyroid carcinoma in patients with Hirschsprung’s disease. Pediatr Surg Int 22 (12): 991-5, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Moore SW, Zaahl MG: Multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, children, Hirschsprung’s disease and RET. Pediatr Surg Int 24 (5): 521-30, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Skinner MA, DeBenedetti MK, Moley JF, et al.: Medullary thyroid carcinoma in children with multiple endocrine neoplasia types 2A and 2B. J Pediatr Surg 31 (1): 177-81; discussion 181-2, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Brauckhoff M, Gimm O, Weiss CL, et al.: Multiple endocrine neoplasia 2B syndrome due to codon 918 mutation: clinical manifestation and course in early and late onset disease. World J Surg 28 (12): 1305-11, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Sakorafas GH, Friess H, Peros G: The genetic basis of hereditary medullary thyroid cancer: clinical implications for the surgeon, with a particular emphasis on the role of prophylactic thyroidectomy. Endocr Relat Cancer 15 (4): 871-84, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Makri A, Akshintala S, Derse-Anthony C, et al.: Pheochromocytoma in Children and Adolescents With Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 104 (1): 7-12, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Machens A, Elwerr M, Lorenz K, et al.: Long-term outcome of prophylactic thyroidectomy in children carrying RET germline mutations. Br J Surg 105 (2): e150-e157, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Kloos RT, Eng C, Evans DB, et al.: Medullary thyroid cancer: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 19 (6): 565-612, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. de Krijger RR: Endocrine tumor syndromes in infancy and childhood. Endocr Pathol 15 (3): 223-6, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Pellegata NS, Quintanilla-Martinez L, Siggelkow H, et al.: Germ-line mutations in p27Kip1 cause a multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome in rats and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (42): 15558-63, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Chevalier B, Coppin L, Romanet P, et al.: Beyond MEN1, When to Think About MEN4? Retrospective Study on 5600 Patients in the French Population and Literature Review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 109 (7): e1482-e1493, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Chasseloup F, Pankratz N, Lane J, et al.: Germline CDKN1B Loss-of-Function Variants Cause Pediatric Cushing’s Disease With or Without an MEN4 Phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 105 (6): 1983-2005, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for childhood MEN syndromes, according to type, are as follows:

References

1. Romero Arenas MA, Morris LF, Rich TA, et al.: Preoperative multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 diagnosis improves the surgical outcomes of pediatric patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. J Pediatr Surg 49 (4): 546-50, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Skinner MA, Moley JA, Dilley WG, et al.: Prophylactic thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. N Engl J Med 353 (11): 1105-13, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Skinner MA: Management of hereditary thyroid cancer in children. Surg Oncol 12 (2): 101-4, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Fitze G: Management of patients with hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma. Eur J Pediatr Surg 14 (6): 375-83, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Learoyd DL, Gosnell J, Elston MS, et al.: Experience of prophylactic thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A kindreds with RET codon 804 mutations. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 63 (6): 636-41, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Guillem JG, Wood WC, Moley JF, et al.: ASCO/SSO review of current role of risk-reducing surgery in common hereditary cancer syndromes. J Clin Oncol 24 (28): 4642-60, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Thyroid Carcinoma. Version 2.2019. Plymouth Meeting, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free subscription. Last accessed June 08, 2020.
8. Lallier M, St-Vil D, Giroux M, et al.: Prophylactic thyroidectomy for medullary thyroid carcinoma in gene carriers of MEN2 syndrome. J Pediatr Surg 33 (6): 846-8, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Dralle H, Gimm O, Simon D, et al.: Prophylactic thyroidectomy in 75 children and adolescents with hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma: German and Austrian experience. World J Surg 22 (7): 744-50; discussion 750-1, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Skinner MA, Wells SA: Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid gland and the MEN 2 syndromes. Semin Pediatr Surg 6 (3): 134-40, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Voss RK, Feng L, Lee JE, et al.: Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma in MEN2A: ATA Moderate- or High-Risk RET Mutations Do Not Predict Disease Aggressiveness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 102 (8): 2807-2813, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Heizmann O, Haecker FM, Zumsteg U, et al.: Presymptomatic thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia 2a. Eur J Surg Oncol 32 (1): 98-102, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Frank-Raue K, Buhr H, Dralle H, et al.: Long-term outcome in 46 gene carriers of hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma after prophylactic thyroidectomy: impact of individual RET genotype. Eur J Endocrinol 155 (2): 229-36, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Piolat C, Dyon JF, Sturm N, et al.: Very early prophylactic thyroid surgery for infants with a mutation of the RET proto-oncogene at codon 634: evaluation of the implementation of international guidelines for MEN type 2 in a single centre. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65 (1): 118-24, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Thyroid Carcinoma. Version 1.2018. Fort Washington, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2018. Available online with free subscription. Last accessed July 5, 2018.
16. Leboulleux S, Travagli JP, Caillou B, et al.: Medullary thyroid carcinoma as part of a multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B syndrome: influence of the stage on the clinical course. Cancer 94 (1): 44-50, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Sakorafas GH, Friess H, Peros G: The genetic basis of hereditary medullary thyroid cancer: clinical implications for the surgeon, with a particular emphasis on the role of prophylactic thyroidectomy. Endocr Relat Cancer 15 (4): 871-84, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Zenaty D, Aigrain Y, Peuchmaur M, et al.: Medullary thyroid carcinoma identified within the first year of life in children with hereditary multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (codon 634) and 2B. Eur J Endocrinol 160 (5): 807-13, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Brauckhoff M, Machens A, Lorenz K, et al.: Surgical curability of medullary thyroid cancer in multiple endocrine neoplasia 2B: a changing perspective. Ann Surg 259 (4): 800-6, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Wells SA, Robinson BG, Gagel RF, et al.: Vandetanib in patients with locally advanced or metastatic medullary thyroid cancer: a randomized, double-blind phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 30 (2): 134-41, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Fox E, Widemann BC, Chuk MK, et al.: Vandetanib in children and adolescents with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B associated medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 19 (15): 4239-48, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Kraft IL, Akshintala S, Zhu Y, et al.: Outcomes of Children and Adolescents with Advanced Hereditary Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Treated with Vandetanib. Clin Cancer Res 24 (4): 753-765, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Kurzrock R, Sherman SI, Ball DW, et al.: Activity of XL184 (Cabozantinib), an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor, in patients with medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Oncol 29 (19): 2660-6, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Elisei R, Schlumberger MJ, Müller SP, et al.: Cabozantinib in progressive medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Oncol 31 (29): 3639-46, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Wirth LJ, Sherman E, Robinson B, et al.: Efficacy of Selpercatinib in RET-Altered Thyroid Cancers. N Engl J Med 383 (9): 825-835, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Eli Lilly and Company: RETEVMO (selpercatinib): Prescribing Information. Indianapolis, Ind: Lilly USA, LLC, 2024. Available online. Last accessed November 29, 2024.

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Adenocarcinoma of the cervix and vagina is rare in childhood and adolescence.[1,2] Two-thirds of cases in previous reports have been associated with exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero.[3] However, the few case reports of vaginal cancer in children in the last decade have not been associated with exposure to DES in utero.[4]

The median age at presentation is 15 years, with a range of 7 months to 18 years. Most patients present with vaginal bleeding. Adults with adenocarcinoma of the cervix or vagina present with stage I or stage II disease 90% of the time.[1] In children and adolescents, there is a high incidence of stage III and stage IV disease (24%). This difference may be explained by the practice of routine pelvic examinations in adults and the hesitancy to perform them in children.

References

1. McNall RY, Nowicki PD, Miller B, et al.: Adenocarcinoma of the cervix and vagina in pediatric patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 43 (3): 289-94, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. You W, Dainty LA, Rose GS, et al.: Gynecologic malignancies in women aged less than 25 years. Obstet Gynecol 105 (6): 1405-9, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Huo D, Anderson D, Palmer JR, et al.: Incidence rates and risks of diethylstilbestrol-related clear-cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina and cervix: Update after 40-year follow-up. Gynecol Oncol 146 (3): 566-571, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Fernandez-Pineda I, Spunt SL, Parida L, et al.: Vaginal tumors in childhood: the experience of St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital. J Pediatr Surg 46 (11): 2071-5, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]

The Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO) system is used to stage cervical and vaginal cancer. For more information, see the Staging Information for Cervical Cancer section in Cervical Cancer Treatment and the Staging Information for Vaginal Cancer section in Vaginal Cancer Treatment.

Treatment options for childhood carcinoma of the cervix and vagina include the following:

The treatment of choice is surgical resection,[1] followed by radiation therapy for residual microscopic disease or lymphatic metastases. The role of chemotherapy in management is unknown. However, drugs commonly given for the treatment of gynecological malignancies, such as carboplatin and paclitaxel, have been used.[2,3]

In a retrospective report, 37 patients with cervical clear cell adenocarcinoma or cervical mesonephric adenocarcinoma were treated with various modalities (surgery, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy). The 3-year event-free survival rate was 71% (± 11%) for patients with all stages of tumors, 82% (± 11%) for patients with stage I and stage II tumors, and 57% (± 22%) for patients with stage III and stage IV tumors.[4]

References

1. Abu-Rustum NR, Su W, Levine DA, et al.: Pediatric radical abdominal trachelectomy for cervical clear cell carcinoma: a novel surgical approach. Gynecol Oncol 97 (1): 296-300, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Baykara M, Benekli M, Erdem O, et al.: Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix: a case report and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 36 (2): e131-3, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Singh P, Nicklin J, Hassall T: Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical vaginal trachelectomy and adjuvant chemotherapy for clear cell cancer of the cervix: a feasible approach and review. Int J Gynecol Cancer 21 (1): 137-40, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. McNall RY, Nowicki PD, Miller B, et al.: Adenocarcinoma of the cervix and vagina in pediatric patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 43 (3): 289-94, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Cervical Cancer Treatment and Vaginal Cancer Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Most ovarian masses in children are not malignant.[1] The most common malignant neoplasms are germ cell tumors, followed by epithelial tumors, stromal tumors, and then other tumors such as Burkitt lymphoma.[2–5]

Most malignant ovarian tumors occur in girls aged 15 to 19 years.[6]

References

1. Lawrence AE, Gonzalez DO, Fallat ME, et al.: Factors Associated With Management of Pediatric Ovarian Neoplasms. Pediatrics 144 (1): , 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Morowitz M, Huff D, von Allmen D: Epithelial ovarian tumors in children: a retrospective analysis. J Pediatr Surg 38 (3): 331-5; discussion 331-5, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Schultz KA, Sencer SF, Messinger Y, et al.: Pediatric ovarian tumors: a review of 67 cases. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44 (2): 167-73, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Aggarwal A, Lucco KL, Lacy J, et al.: Ovarian epithelial tumors of low malignant potential: a case series of 5 adolescent patients. J Pediatr Surg 44 (10): 2023-7, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. You W, Dainty LA, Rose GS, et al.: Gynecologic malignancies in women aged less than 25 years. Obstet Gynecol 105 (6): 1405-9, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Brookfield KF, Cheung MC, Koniaris LG, et al.: A population-based analysis of 1037 malignant ovarian tumors in the pediatric population. J Surg Res 156 (1): 45-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

The Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO) staging system has been used for ovarian cancers (see Table 1).

References

1. Berek JS, Renz M, Kehoe S, et al.: Cancer of the ovary, fallopian tube, and peritoneum: 2021 update. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 155 (Suppl 1): 61-85, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Childress KJ, Patil NM, Muscal JA, et al.: Borderline Ovarian Tumor in the Pediatric and Adolescent Population: A Case Series and Literature Review. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 31 (1): 48-54, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Hazard FK, Longacre TA: Ovarian surface epithelial neoplasms in the pediatric population: incidence, histologic subtype, and natural history. Am J Surg Pathol 37 (4): 548-53, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Virgone C, Alaggio R, Dall’Igna P, et al.: Epithelial Tumors of the Ovary in Children and Teenagers: A Prospective Study from the Italian TREP Project. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 28 (6): 441-6, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Tsai JY, Saigo PE, Brown C, et al.: Diagnosis, pathology, staging, treatment, and outcome of epithelial ovarian neoplasia in patients age < 21 years. Cancer 91 (11): 2065-70, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Nasioudis D, Alevizakos M, Holcomb K, et al.: Malignant and borderline epithelial ovarian tumors in the pediatric and adolescent population. Maturitas 96: 45-50, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Schneider DT, Jänig U, Calaminus G, et al.: Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors–a clinicopathological study of 72 cases from the Kiel Pediatric Tumor Registry. Virchows Arch 443 (4): 549-60, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Fresneau B, Orbach D, Faure-Conter C, et al.: Sex-Cord Stromal Tumors in Children and Teenagers: Results of the TGM-95 Study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 62 (12): 2114-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Schultz KA, Schneider DT, Pashankar F, et al.: Management of ovarian and testicular sex cord-stromal tumors in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34 (Suppl 2): S55-63, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Harms D, et al.: Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors in children and adolescents. J Reprod Med 50 (6): 439-46, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Schneider DT, Orbach D, Ben-Ami T, et al.: Consensus recommendations from the EXPeRT/PARTNER groups for the diagnosis and therapy of sex cord stromal tumors in children and adolescents. Pediatr Blood Cancer 68 (Suppl 4): e29017, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Schultz KA, Pacheco MC, Yang J, et al.: Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors, pleuropulmonary blastoma and DICER1 mutations: a report from the International Pleuropulmonary Blastoma Registry. Gynecol Oncol 122 (2): 246-50, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Yang B, Chour W, Salazar CG, et al.: Pediatric Sertoli-Leydig Cell Tumors of the Ovary: An Integrated Study of Clinicopathological Features, Pan-cancer-Targeted Next-generation Sequencing and Chromosomal Microarray Analysis From a Single Institution. Am J Surg Pathol 48 (2): 194-203, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Nelson AT, Harris AK, Watson D, et al.: Outcomes in ovarian Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor: A report from the International Pleuropulmonary Blastoma/DICER1 and Ovarian and Testicular Stromal Tumor Registries. Gynecol Oncol 186: 117-125, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Wessalowski R, et al.: Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors in children and adolescents. J Clin Oncol 21 (12): 2357-63, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Schneider DT, Orbach D, Cecchetto G, et al.: Ovarian Sertoli Leydig cell tumours in children and adolescents: an analysis of the European Cooperative Study Group on Pediatric Rare Tumors (EXPeRT). Eur J Cancer 51 (4): 543-50, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Calaminus G, Wessalowski R, Harms D, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumors of the ovary in children and adolescents: results from 33 patients registered in a prospective cooperative study. Gynecol Oncol 65 (3): 447-52, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Capito C, Flechtner I, Thibaud E, et al.: Neonatal bilateral ovarian sex cord stromal tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (3): 401-3, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Wu H, Pangas SA, Eldin KW, et al.: Juvenile Granulosa Cell Tumor of the Ovary: A Clinicopathologic Study. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 30 (1): 138-143, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Tanaka Y, Sasaki Y, Nishihira H, et al.: Ovarian juvenile granulosa cell tumor associated with Maffucci’s syndrome. Am J Clin Pathol 97 (4): 523-7, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Sampagar AA, Jahagirdar RR, Bafna VS, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor associated with Ollier disease. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol 37 (4): 293-295, 2016 Oct-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Littrell LA, Inwards CY, Hazard FK, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor associated with Ollier disease. Skeletal Radiol 52 (3): 605-612, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Kalfa N, Patte C, Orbach D, et al.: A nationwide study of granulosa cell tumors in pre- and postpubertal girls: missed diagnosis of endocrine manifestations worsens prognosis. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 18 (1): 25-31, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Gell JS, Stannard MW, Ramnani DM, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor in a 13-year-old girl with enchondromatosis (Ollier’s disease): a case report. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 11 (3): 147-50, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Bergamini A, Ferrandina G, Candotti G, et al.: Stage I juvenile granulosa cell tumors of the ovary: A multicentre analysis from the MITO-9 study. Eur J Surg Oncol 47 (7): 1705-1709, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Vassal G, Flamant F, Caillaud JM, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor of the ovary in children: a clinical study of 15 cases. J Clin Oncol 6 (6): 990-5, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Powell JL, Connor GP, Henderson GS: Management of recurrent juvenile granulosa cell tumor of the ovary. Gynecol Oncol 81 (1): 113-6, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Wessalowski R, et al.: Therapy of advanced ovarian juvenile granulosa cell tumors. Klin Padiatr 214 (4): 173-8, 2002 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Arhan E, Cetinkaya E, Aycan Z, et al.: A very rare cause of virilization in childhood: ovarian Leydig cell tumor. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 21 (2): 181-3, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Choong CS, Fuller PJ, Chu S, et al.: Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor of the ovary, a rare cause of precocious puberty in a 12-month-old infant. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (1): 49-56, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Zung A, Shoham Z, Open M, et al.: Sertoli cell tumor causing precocious puberty in a girl with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. Gynecol Oncol 70 (3): 421-4, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Schultz KA, Harris A, Messinger Y, et al.: Ovarian tumors related to intronic mutations in DICER1: a report from the international ovarian and testicular stromal tumor registry. Fam Cancer 15 (1): 105-10, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Schultz KAP, Williams GM, Kamihara J, et al.: DICER1 and Associated Conditions: Identification of At-risk Individuals and Recommended Surveillance Strategies. Clin Cancer Res 24 (10): 2251-2261, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Schultz KAP, Harris AK, Finch M, et al.: DICER1-related Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor and gynandroblastoma: Clinical and genetic findings from the International Ovarian and Testicular Stromal Tumor Registry. Gynecol Oncol 147 (3): 521-527, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Gui T, Cao D, Shen K, et al.: A clinicopathological analysis of 40 cases of ovarian Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. Gynecol Oncol 127 (2): 384-9, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

Small cell carcinomas of the ovary are exceedingly rare and aggressive.[1] The prognosis is poor for these patients. This cancer may be associated with hypercalcemia.[2]

References

1. Wens FSPL, Hulsker CCC, Fiocco M, et al.: Small Cell Carcinoma of the Ovary, Hypercalcemic Type (SCCOHT): Patient Characteristics, Treatment, and Outcome-A Systematic Review. Cancers (Basel) 15 (15): , 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Distelmaier F, Calaminus G, Harms D, et al.: Ovarian small cell carcinoma of the hypercalcemic type in children and adolescents: a prognostically unfavorable but curable disease. Cancer 107 (9): 2298-306, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Witkowski L, Goudie C, Foulkes WD, et al.: Small-Cell Carcinoma of the Ovary of Hypercalcemic Type (Malignant Rhabdoid Tumor of the Ovary): A Review with Recent Developments on Pathogenesis. Surg Pathol Clin 9 (2): 215-26, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Ramos P, Karnezis AN, Craig DW, et al.: Small cell carcinoma of the ovary, hypercalcemic type, displays frequent inactivating germline and somatic mutations in SMARCA4. Nat Genet 46 (5): 427-9, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Witkowski L, Carrot-Zhang J, Albrecht S, et al.: Germline and somatic SMARCA4 mutations characterize small cell carcinoma of the ovary, hypercalcemic type. Nat Genet 46 (5): 438-43, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Andrianteranagna M, Cyrta J, Masliah-Planchon J, et al.: SMARCA4-deficient rhabdoid tumours show intermediate molecular features between SMARCB1-deficient rhabdoid tumours and small cell carcinomas of the ovary, hypercalcaemic type. J Pathol 255 (1): 1-15, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Pressey JG, Kelly DR, Hawthorne HT: Successful treatment of preadolescents with small cell carcinoma of the ovary hypercalcemic type. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 35 (7): 566-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Christin A, Lhomme C, Valteau-Couanet D, et al.: Successful treatment for advanced small cell carcinoma of the ovary. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (6): 1276-7, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Kanwar VS, Heath J, Krasner CN, et al.: Advanced small cell carcinoma of the ovary in a seventeen-year-old female, successfully treated with surgery and multi-agent chemotherapy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (5): 1060-2, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Chan-Penebre E, Armstrong K, Drew A, et al.: Selective Killing of SMARCA2- and SMARCA4-deficient Small Cell Carcinoma of the Ovary, Hypercalcemic Type Cells by Inhibition of EZH2: In Vitro and In Vivo Preclinical Models. Mol Cancer Ther 16 (5): 850-860, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Italiano A, Soria JC, Toulmonde M, et al.: Tazemetostat, an EZH2 inhibitor, in relapsed or refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma and advanced solid tumours: a first-in-human, open-label, phase 1 study. Lancet Oncol 19 (5): 649-659, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are the most common mesenchymal neoplasms of the gastrointestinal tract in adults.[1] These tumors are rare in children.[2] Approximately 2% of all GIST occur in children and young adults.[3–5] In one series, pediatric GIST accounted for 2.5% of all pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas.[6] Previously, these tumors were diagnosed as leiomyomas, leiomyosarcomas, and leiomyoblastomas.

In pediatric patients, GIST are most commonly located in the stomach and almost exclusively affect adolescent females.[5,7,8]

References

1. Corless CL, Fletcher JA, Heinrich MC: Biology of gastrointestinal stromal tumors. J Clin Oncol 22 (18): 3813-25, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Pappo AS, Janeway K, Laquaglia M, et al.: Special considerations in pediatric gastrointestinal tumors. J Surg Oncol 104 (8): 928-32, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Prakash S, Sarran L, Socci N, et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors in children and young adults: a clinicopathologic, molecular, and genomic study of 15 cases and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 27 (4): 179-87, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Miettinen M, Lasota J, Sobin LH: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors of the stomach in children and young adults: a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic study of 44 cases with long-term follow-up and review of the literature. Am J Surg Pathol 29 (10): 1373-81, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Benesch M, Wardelmann E, Ferrari A, et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) in children and adolescents: A comprehensive review of the current literature. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53 (7): 1171-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Cypriano MS, Jenkins JJ, Pappo AS, et al.: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors and leiomyosarcoma. Cancer 101 (1): 39-50, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Pappo AS, Janeway KA: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 23 (1): 15-34, vii, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Benesch M, Leuschner I, Wardelmann E, et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumours in children and young adults: a clinicopathologic series with long-term follow-up from the database of the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). Eur J Cancer 47 (11): 1692-8, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]

Most pediatric patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are diagnosed during the second decade of life with anemia-related gastrointestinal bleeding. In addition, pediatric GIST have a high propensity for multifocality (23%) and nodal metastases.[1–3] These features may account for the high incidence of local recurrence seen in this patient population. Despite these features, patients have an indolent course, characterized by multiple tumor recurrences and long survival rates.[2]

References

1. Pappo AS, Janeway KA: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 23 (1): 15-34, vii, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Agaram NP, Laquaglia MP, Ustun B, et al.: Molecular characterization of pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Clin Cancer Res 14 (10): 3204-15, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Benesch M, Wardelmann E, Ferrari A, et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) in children and adolescents: A comprehensive review of the current literature. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53 (7): 1171-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

Histologically, pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) have a predominance of epithelioid or epithelioid/spindle cell morphology. Unlike adult GIST, the mitotic rate does not appear to accurately predict clinical behavior in pediatric patients.[1,2] Most GIST in the pediatric age range have loss of the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) complex and consequently, lack SDHB expression by immunohistochemistry.[3,4] In addition, these tumors have minimal large-scale chromosomal changes and overexpress the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor.[5,6]

Gastrointestinal tumors without a definitive line of differentiation should be evaluated for NTRK alterations.[7] Mesenchymal tumor of the gastrointestinal tract is characterized by the presence of NTRK rearrangements and is a separate entity from GIST. In a report of eight cases of mesenchymal tumors, six occurred in children. Four of these patients had lesions that were enriched for NTRK3 fusions, consistent with the diagnosis of infantile fibrosarcoma of the gastrointestinal tract.[7]

Activating variants of KIT and PDGFRA, which are seen in 90% of adult GIST, are present in only a small fraction of pediatric GIST.[1,5,8]

The lack of SDHB expression in most pediatric GIST implicates cellular respiration defects in the pathogenesis of this disease and supports the notion that this disease is better categorized as SDH-deficient GIST. Furthermore, about 50% of patients with SDH-deficient GIST have germline pathogenic variants of the SDH complex, most commonly involving SDHA.[3] This finding supports the concept that SDH-deficient GIST is a cancer predisposition syndrome, and testing of affected patients for constitutional variants for the SDH complex should be considered.[9]

SDH-deficient GIST can arise within the context of the following two syndromes:[1,10]

A small percentage of SDH-deficient GIST lack somatic or germline variants of the SDH complex. These tumors are characterized by SDHC promoter hypermethylation and gene silencing, and they are categorized as GIST with an SDHC epigenetic variant.[14]

In an observational study done at the National Cancer Institute, 116 patients with presumed wild-type GIST were evaluated, and 95 of these patients had an adequate tumor specimen available for molecular profiling. Among these 95 patients, the investigators identified the following three distinctive subgroups of patients:[15]

Of the 95 patients that were evaluated at this clinic, 18 patients had syndromic GIST (i.e., Carney triad or Carney-Stratakis syndrome). Among the Carney triad patients, two patients had the complete triad, five patients had SDH variants, and six patients had epigenetic variants. Seven patients with Carney-Stratakis syndrome had SDH-variant GIST (n = 6) or GIST with an SDHC epigenetic variant (n = 1).[15]

References

1. Pappo AS, Janeway KA: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 23 (1): 15-34, vii, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Miettinen M, Lasota J: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors: review on morphology, molecular pathology, prognosis, and differential diagnosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 130 (10): 1466-78, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Miettinen M, Lasota J: Succinate dehydrogenase deficient gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) – a review. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 53: 514-9, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Miettinen M, Wang ZF, Sarlomo-Rikala M, et al.: Succinate dehydrogenase-deficient GISTs: a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic study of 66 gastric GISTs with predilection to young age. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (11): 1712-21, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Janeway KA, Liegl B, Harlow A, et al.: Pediatric KIT wild-type and platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha-wild-type gastrointestinal stromal tumors share KIT activation but not mechanisms of genetic progression with adult gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Cancer Res 67 (19): 9084-8, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Tarn C, Rink L, Merkel E, et al.: Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor is a potential therapeutic target for gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (24): 8387-92, 2008. Also available online. Last accessed June 04, 2019.
7. Atiq MA, Davis JL, Hornick JL, et al.: Mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract with NTRK rearrangements: a clinicopathological, immunophenotypic, and molecular study of eight cases, emphasizing their distinction from gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). Mod Pathol 34 (1): 95-103, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Agaram NP, Laquaglia MP, Ustun B, et al.: Molecular characterization of pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Clin Cancer Res 14 (10): 3204-15, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Janeway KA, Kim SY, Lodish M, et al.: Defects in succinate dehydrogenase in gastrointestinal stromal tumors lacking KIT and PDGFRA mutations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108 (1): 314-8, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Otto C, Agaimy A, Braun A, et al.: Multifocal gastric gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) with lymph node metastases in children and young adults: a comparative clinical and histomorphological study of three cases including a new case of Carney triad. Diagn Pathol 6: 52, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Carney JA: Carney triad: a syndrome featuring paraganglionic, adrenocortical, and possibly other endocrine tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94 (10): 3656-62, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Benesch M, Wardelmann E, Ferrari A, et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) in children and adolescents: A comprehensive review of the current literature. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53 (7): 1171-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Pasini B, McWhinney SR, Bei T, et al.: Clinical and molecular genetics of patients with the Carney-Stratakis syndrome and germline mutations of the genes coding for the succinate dehydrogenase subunits SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD. Eur J Hum Genet 16 (1): 79-88, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Killian JK, Miettinen M, Walker RL, et al.: Recurrent epimutation of SDHC in gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Sci Transl Med 6 (268): 268ra177, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Boikos SA, Pappo AS, Killian JK, et al.: Molecular Subtypes of KIT/PDGFRA Wild-Type Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: A Report From the National Institutes of Health Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor Clinic. JAMA Oncol 2 (7): 922-8, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) include the following:

Once the diagnosis of pediatric GIST is established, patients should be referred to medical centers with expertise in the treatment of GIST.[1,2]

Given the indolent course of the disease in pediatric patients, it is reasonable to avoid extensive initial surgeries and to withhold subsequent resections unless needed to address symptoms such as obstruction or bleeding.[3,4]

Tumor samples are evaluated for variants in KIT (exons 9, 11, 13, 17), PDGFRA (exons 12, 14, 18), and BRAF (V600E).[1,2] Treatment options for GIST depend on whether a variant is detected.

GIST with a KIT or PDGFRA variant: Pediatric patients who harbor KIT or PDGFRA variants are managed like adults. For more information, see Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors Treatment.

Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)-deficient GIST: Approximately one-half of all patients with wild-type GIST are SDH deficient.[5] For most pediatric patients with SDH-deficient GIST, surgical resection of localized disease is recommended because of its indolent course. Extensive surgery and repeated surgical resections should be avoided.

This approach is supported by a study of 76 patients with wild-type GIST who underwent surgery for newly diagnosed and recurrent disease.[5]

In patients with SDH-deficient GIST, responses to imatinib, regorafenib, vandetanib, sunitinib, and guadecitabine are uncommon.[3,6–9]

Unlike recommendations for adults, the use of adjuvant imatinib cannot be recommended in children with SDH-deficient GIST.[14]

References

1. Demetri GD, Benjamin RS, Blanke CD, et al.: NCCN Task Force report: management of patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)–update of the NCCN clinical practice guidelines. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 5 (Suppl 2): S1-29; quiz S30, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Janeway KA, Weldon CB: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumor. Semin Pediatr Surg 21 (1): 31-43, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Pappo AS, Janeway KA: Pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 23 (1): 15-34, vii, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Pappo AS, Janeway K, Laquaglia M, et al.: Special considerations in pediatric gastrointestinal tumors. J Surg Oncol 104 (8): 928-32, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Weldon CB, Madenci AL, Boikos SA, et al.: Surgical Management of Wild-Type Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: A Report From the National Institutes of Health Pediatric and Wildtype GIST Clinic. J Clin Oncol 35 (5): 523-528, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Neppala P, Banerjee S, Fanta PT, et al.: Current management of succinate dehydrogenase-deficient gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Cancer Metastasis Rev 38 (3): 525-535, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Demetri GD, van Oosterom AT, Garrett CR, et al.: Efficacy and safety of sunitinib in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumour after failure of imatinib: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 368 (9544): 1329-38, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Demetri GD, von Mehren M, Blanke CD, et al.: Efficacy and safety of imatinib mesylate in advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumors. N Engl J Med 347 (7): 472-80, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Martin-Broto J, Valverde C, Hindi N, et al.: REGISTRI: Regorafenib in first-line of KIT/PDGFRA wild type metastatic GIST: a collaborative Spanish (GEIS), Italian (ISG) and French Sarcoma Group (FSG) phase II trial. Mol Cancer 22 (1): 127, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Heinrich MC, Rankin C, Blanke CD, et al.: Correlation of Long-term Results of Imatinib in Advanced Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors With Next-Generation Sequencing Results: Analysis of Phase 3 SWOG Intergroup Trial S0033. JAMA Oncol 3 (7): 944-952, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Janeway KA, Albritton KH, Van Den Abbeele AD, et al.: Sunitinib treatment in pediatric patients with advanced GIST following failure of imatinib. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (7): 767-71, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Singh C, Bindra RS, Glazer PM, et al.: Metastatic and multiply relapsed SDH-deficient GIST and paraganglioma displays clinical response to combined poly ADP-ribose polymerase inhibition and temozolomide. Pediatr Blood Cancer 70 (3): e30020, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Ligon JA, Sundby RT, Wedekind MF, et al.: A Phase II Trial of Guadecitabine in Children and Adults with SDH-Deficient GIST, Pheochromocytoma, Paraganglioma, and HLRCC-Associated Renal Cell Carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 29 (2): 341-348, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Dematteo RP, Ballman KV, Antonescu CR, et al.: Adjuvant imatinib mesylate after resection of localised, primary gastrointestinal stromal tumour: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 373 (9669): 1097-104, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Urothelial bladder neoplasms are extremely rare in children. The most common presenting symptom of bladder cancer in children is hematuria.[1,2] Bladder tumors can present throughout the pediatric age range. In one small series, the mean age was 11.9 years (range, 4–19 years).[3] In another study, patients were aged between 16 months and 19 years. Most of the bladder tumors occurred in males.[4]

Bladder cancer in adolescents may develop as a result of exposure to alkylating-agent chemotherapy that was given to treat other childhood tumors or leukemia.[5–8] The association between cyclophosphamide exposure and bladder cancer is one of the only established relationships between a specific anticancer drug and a solid tumor.[9] An excess prevalence of bladder tumors has also been observed in survivors of specific cancer types (e.g., heritable retinoblastoma), supporting the concept that genetic factors contribute to the development of subsequent neoplasms.[10]

References

1. Saltsman JA, Malek MM, Reuter VE, et al.: Urothelial neoplasms in pediatric and young adult patients: A large single-center series. J Pediatr Surg 53 (2): 306-309, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Rezaee ME, Dunaway CM, Baker ML, et al.: Urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder in pediatric patients: a systematic review and data analysis of the world literature. J Pediatr Urol 15 (4): 309-314, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Galiya R, Stanislav K, Jawdat J, et al.: Pediatric urothelial bladder neoplasm. J Pediatr Urol 18 (6): 833.e1-833.e4, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Shumaker AD, Harel M, Gitlin J, et al.: Pediatric Bladder Tumors: A Ten-Year Retrospective Analysis. Urology 169: 185-190, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Di Carlo D, Ferrari A, Perruccio K, et al.: Management and follow-up of urothelial neoplasms of the bladder in children: a report from the TREP project. Pediatr Blood Cancer 62 (6): 1000-3, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Ritchey M, Ferrer F, Shearer P, et al.: Late effects on the urinary bladder in patients treated for cancer in childhood: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (4): 439-46, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Travis LB, Curtis RE, Glimelius B, et al.: Bladder and kidney cancer following cyclophosphamide therapy for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 87 (7): 524-30, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Kersun LS, Wimmer RS, Hoot AC, et al.: Secondary malignant neoplasms of the bladder after cyclophosphamide treatment for childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer 42 (3): 289-91, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Johansson SL, Cohen SM: Epidemiology and etiology of bladder cancer. Semin Surg Oncol 13 (5): 291-8, 1997 Sep-Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Frobisher C, Gurung PM, Leiper A, et al.: Risk of bladder tumours after childhood cancer: the British Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. BJU Int 106 (7): 1060-9, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Histological classification of urothelial bladder neoplasms includes the following:

An alternative designation is transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. The most common histology is papillary urothelial neoplasms of low malignant potential, while high-grade, invasive urothelial carcinomas are extremely rare in young patients.[1–5]

References

1. Alanee S, Shukla AR: Bladder malignancies in children aged <18 years: results from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results database. BJU Int 106 (4): 557-60, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Paner GP, Zehnder P, Amin AM, et al.: Urothelial neoplasms of the urinary bladder occurring in young adult and pediatric patients: a comprehensive review of literature with implications for patient management. Adv Anat Pathol 18 (1): 79-89, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Stanton ML, Xiao L, Czerniak BA, et al.: Urothelial tumors of the urinary bladder in young patients: a clinicopathologic study of 59 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 137 (10): 1337-41, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Di Carlo D, Ferrari A, Perruccio K, et al.: Management and follow-up of urothelial neoplasms of the bladder in children: a report from the TREP project. Pediatr Blood Cancer 62 (6): 1000-3, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Berrettini A, Castagnetti M, Salerno A, et al.: Bladder urothelial neoplasms in pediatric age: experience at three tertiary centers. J Pediatr Urol 11 (1): 26.e1-5, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for childhood bladder cancer include the following:

In contrast to adult bladder carcinomas, most pediatric tumors are low grade and superficial. Pediatric patients have an excellent prognosis after transurethral resection.[1–4] In one review of the literature, recurrence risk and mortality rates were low in pediatric patients (8.6% and 3.7%, respectively).[5] Most recurrences were observed within 9 months of treatment, and all recurrences occurred within 32 months of treatment. This finding suggests that patients should be monitored for at least 3 years.

Squamous cell carcinomas and more aggressive carcinomas have been reported in children and may require a more aggressive surgical approach.[3,6–8]

References

1. Fine SW, Humphrey PA, Dehner LP, et al.: Urothelial neoplasms in patients 20 years or younger: a clinicopathological analysis using the world health organization 2004 bladder consensus classification. J Urol 174 (5): 1976-80, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Paner GP, Zehnder P, Amin AM, et al.: Urothelial neoplasms of the urinary bladder occurring in young adult and pediatric patients: a comprehensive review of literature with implications for patient management. Adv Anat Pathol 18 (1): 79-89, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Stanton ML, Xiao L, Czerniak BA, et al.: Urothelial tumors of the urinary bladder in young patients: a clinicopathologic study of 59 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 137 (10): 1337-41, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Berrettini A, Castagnetti M, Salerno A, et al.: Bladder urothelial neoplasms in pediatric age: experience at three tertiary centers. J Pediatr Urol 11 (1): 26.e1-5, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Rezaee ME, Dunaway CM, Baker ML, et al.: Urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder in pediatric patients: a systematic review and data analysis of the world literature. J Pediatr Urol 15 (4): 309-314, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Sung JD, Koyle MA: Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder in a pediatric patient. J Pediatr Surg 35 (12): 1838-9, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Lezama-del Valle P, Jerkins GR, Rao BN, et al.: Aggressive bladder carcinoma in a child. Pediatr Blood Cancer 43 (3): 285-8, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Korrect GS, Minevich EA, Sivan B: High-grade transitional cell carcinoma of the pediatric bladder. J Pediatr Urol 8 (3): e36-8, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Carcinoma of the large bowel is rare in children and adolescents.[1] Colorectal cancer is seen in 0.5 cases per 100,000 people younger than 20 years in the United States annually.[2] Fewer than 100 cases are diagnosed in children each year in the United States.[3] From 1973 to 2006, the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program database recorded 174 cases of colorectal cancer in patients younger than 19 years.[4]

Colorectal carcinoma accounts for about 5% of all malignancies in people aged 15 to 29 years.[2] An analysis of SEER data identified 5,350 adolescents and young adults between the ages of 15 and 39 years with colorectal cancer from 2010 to 2015.[5]

References

1. da Costa Vieira RA, Tramonte MS, Lopes LF: Colorectal carcinoma in the first decade of life: a systematic review. Int J Colorectal Dis 30 (8): 1001-6, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
3. Saab R, Furman WL: Epidemiology and management options for colorectal cancer in children. Paediatr Drugs 10 (3): 177-92, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Ferrari A, Casanova M, Massimino M, et al.: Peculiar features and tailored management of adult cancers occurring in pediatric age. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 10 (11): 1837-51, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Holowatyj AN, Lewis MA, Pannier ST, et al.: Clinicopathologic and Racial/Ethnic Differences of Colorectal Cancer Among Adolescents and Young Adults. Clin Transl Gastroenterol 10 (7): e00059, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]

A register-based nationwide cohort study was conducted in Sweden and Denmark to assess the risk of colorectal cancer related to childhood-onset Crohn disease (n = 6,937) and ulcerative colitis (n = 8,514). Patients with Crohn disease were monitored until a median age of 27 years, and patients with ulcerative colitis were monitored until age 29 years.[1]

References

1. Everhov ÅH, Ludvigsson JF, Järås J, et al.: Colorectal Cancer in Childhood-onset Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Scandinavian Register-based Cohort Study, 1969-2017. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 75 (4): 480-484, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]

About 20% to 30% of adult patients with colorectal cancer have a significant history of familial cancer; of these, about 5% have a well-defined genetic syndrome.[1] Hereditary colorectal cancer has two well-described forms:[2,3]

Other colorectal cancer syndromes and their associated genes include oligopolyposis (POLE, POLD1),[3] NTHL1,[10] juvenile polyposis syndrome (BMPR1A, SMAD4), Cowden syndrome (PTEN), and Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (STK11).[2] For more information about these syndromes, see Genetics of Colorectal Cancer

Another tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 18 is associated with progression of polyps to malignant tumors. Multiple colon carcinomas have been associated with neurofibromatosis type I and several other rare syndromes.[11]

In a cohort study of 201 patients with constitutional mismatch repair deficiency, 59 developed colorectal cancer at a median age of 20.1 years (range, 13.9–24.9 years). The cumulative incidence of gastrointestinal cancers by age 20 years was 42% (95% confidence interval, 30%–54%).[12]

The incidence of these genetic syndromes in children is not well defined, but several studies have examined it, as follows:

References

1. Gatalica Z, Torlakovic E: Pathology of the hereditary colorectal carcinoma. Fam Cancer 7 (1): 15-26, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Hampel H: Genetic testing for hereditary colorectal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 18 (4): 687-703, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Briggs S, Tomlinson I: Germline and somatic polymerase ε and δ mutations define a new class of hypermutated colorectal and endometrial cancers. J Pathol 230 (2): 148-53, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Erdman SH: Pediatric adenomatous polyposis syndromes: an update. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 9 (3): 237-44, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Vitellaro M, Piozzi G, Signoroni S, et al.: Short-term and long-term outcomes after preventive surgery in adolescent patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (3): e28110, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Turcot J, Despres JP, St Pierre F: Malignant tumors of the central nervous system associated with familial polyposis of the colon: report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum 2: 465-8, 1959 Sep-Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Vogelstein B, Fearon ER, Hamilton SR, et al.: Genetic alterations during colorectal-tumor development. N Engl J Med 319 (9): 525-32, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Lynch PM, Ayers GD, Hawk E, et al.: The safety and efficacy of celecoxib in children with familial adenomatous polyposis. Am J Gastroenterol 105 (6): 1437-43, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Heath JA, Reece JC, Buchanan DD, et al.: Childhood cancers in families with and without Lynch syndrome. Fam Cancer 14 (4): 545-51, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Broderick P, Dobbins SE, Chubb D, et al.: Validation of Recently Proposed Colorectal Cancer Susceptibility Gene Variants in an Analysis of Families and Patients-a Systematic Review. Gastroenterology 152 (1): 75-77.e4, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Pratt CB, Jane JA: Multiple colorectal carcinomas, polyposis coli, and neurofibromatosis, followed by multiple glioblastoma multiforme. J Natl Cancer Inst 83 (12): 880-1, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Ercan AB, Aronson M, Fernandez NR, et al.: Clinical and biological landscape of constitutional mismatch-repair deficiency syndrome: an International Replication Repair Deficiency Consortium cohort study. Lancet Oncol 25 (5): 668-682, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. O’Connell JB, Maggard MA, Livingston EH, et al.: Colorectal cancer in the young. Am J Surg 187 (3): 343-8, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Goel A, Nagasaka T, Spiegel J, et al.: Low frequency of Lynch syndrome among young patients with non-familial colorectal cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 8 (11): 966-71, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Weber ML, Schneider DT, Offenmüller S, et al.: Pediatric Colorectal Carcinoma is Associated With Excellent Outcome in the Context of Cancer Predisposition Syndromes. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (4): 611-7, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]

Colorectal tumors can occur in any location in the large bowel. Large series and reviews suggest that ascending and descending colon tumors are each seen in approximately 30% of cases, with rectal tumors occurring in approximately 25% of cases.[1–3]

Right-sided tumors (cecum to transverse colon) were diagnosed in 28.6% of adolescent and young adult (AYA) cases. The proportion of right-sided colorectal cancers differed significantly by age group at diagnosis (38.3% of AYA patients aged 15–19 years vs. 27.3% of AYA patients aged 35–39 years). The incidence of mucinous adenocarcinoma and signet ring cell carcinoma histopathological subtypes was higher in younger patients.

Tumors of the ascending colon (right colon) may cause more subtle symptoms but are often associated with the following:

Signs and symptoms in children with descending colon tumors include the following:

The median duration of symptoms before diagnosis was about 3 months in one series.[4,5]

Changes in bowel habits may be associated with tumors of the rectum or lower colon.

Any tumor that causes complete obstruction of the large bowel can cause bowel perforation and spread of the tumor cells within the abdominal cavity.

References

1. Kaplan MA, Isikdogan A, Gumus M, et al.: Childhood, adolescents, and young adults (≤25 y) colorectal cancer: study of Anatolian Society of Medical Oncology. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 35 (2): 83-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Kim G, Baik SH, Lee KY, et al.: Colon carcinoma in childhood: review of the literature with four case reports. Int J Colorectal Dis 28 (2): 157-64, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Sultan I, Rodriguez-Galindo C, El-Taani H, et al.: Distinct features of colorectal cancer in children and adolescents: a population-based study of 159 cases. Cancer 116 (3): 758-65, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Hill DA, Furman WL, Billups CA, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in childhood and adolescence: a clinicopathologic review. J Clin Oncol 25 (36): 5808-14, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Saab R, Furman WL: Epidemiology and management options for colorectal cancer in children. Paediatr Drugs 10 (3): 177-92, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]

Diagnostic studies include the following:[1,2]

References

1. Pratt CB, Rao BN, Merchant TE, et al.: Treatment of colorectal carcinoma in adolescents and young adults with surgery, 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin/interferon-alpha 2a and radiation therapy. Med Pediatr Oncol 32 (6): 459-60, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Kauffman WM, Jenkins JJ, Helton K, et al.: Imaging features of ovarian metastases from colonic adenocarcinoma in adolescents. Pediatr Radiol 25 (4): 286-8, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Postgate A, Hyer W, Phillips R, et al.: Feasibility of video capsule endoscopy in the management of children with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome: a blinded comparison with barium enterography for the detection of small bowel polyps. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 49 (4): 417-23, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

There is a higher incidence of mucinous adenocarcinoma in pediatric and adolescent patients (40%–50%), with many lesions of the signet ring cell type.[1–5] In comparison, only about 15% of adult lesions involve this histology. Tumors with mucinous histology arise from the surface of the bowel, usually at the site of an adenomatous polyp.[5] The tumor may extend into the muscle layer surrounding the bowel, or the tumor may perforate the bowel entirely and seed through the spaces around the bowel, including intra-abdominal fat, lymph nodes, liver, ovaries, and the surface of other loops of bowel. A high incidence of metastasis involving the pelvis, ovaries, or both may be present in girls.[6]

The tumors of younger patients with the mucinous histological variant may not respond well to chemotherapy. In the adolescent and young adult (AYA) population with this histology, there is a higher incidence of signet ring cells, microsatellite instability, and variants in the mismatch repair genes.[5,7,8]

Colorectal cancers in younger patients with noninherited sporadic tumors often lack KRAS variants and other cytogenetic anomalies seen in older patients.[9] A genomic study used exome and RNA sequencing to identify variant differences in colorectal carcinomas of adults (n = 30), AYA patients (n = 30), and children (n = 2). Five of the identified genes (MYCBP2, BRCA2, PHLPP1, TOPORS, and ATR) were more frequently altered in AYA patients. These genes contained a damaging variant and were identified through whole-exome sequencing and RNA sequencing. In addition, higher variant rates in DNA mismatch and DNA repair pathways, such as MSH2, BRCA2, and RAD9B, were more prevalent in AYA samples, but the results were not validated by RNA sequencing.[10]

References

1. Saab R, Furman WL: Epidemiology and management options for colorectal cancer in children. Paediatr Drugs 10 (3): 177-92, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Hill DA, Furman WL, Billups CA, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in childhood and adolescence: a clinicopathologic review. J Clin Oncol 25 (36): 5808-14, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Ferrari A, Rognone A, Casanova M, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children and adolescents: the experience of the Istituto Nazionale Tumori of Milan, Italy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (3): 588-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. da Costa Vieira RA, Tramonte MS, Lopes LF: Colorectal carcinoma in the first decade of life: a systematic review. Int J Colorectal Dis 30 (8): 1001-6, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Poles GC, Clark DE, Mayo SW, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in pediatric patients: A comparison with adult tumors, treatment and outcomes from the National Cancer Database. J Pediatr Surg 51 (7): 1061-6, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Kauffman WM, Jenkins JJ, Helton K, et al.: Imaging features of ovarian metastases from colonic adenocarcinoma in adolescents. Pediatr Radiol 25 (4): 286-8, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Tricoli JV, Seibel NL, Blair DG, et al.: Unique characteristics of adolescent and young adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia, breast cancer, and colon cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 103 (8): 628-35, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Khan SA, Morris M, Idrees K, et al.: Colorectal cancer in the very young: a comparative study of tumor markers, pathology and survival in early onset and adult onset patients. J Pediatr Surg 51 (11): 1812-1817, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Bleyer A, Barr R, Hayes-Lattin B, et al.: The distinctive biology of cancer in adolescents and young adults. Nat Rev Cancer 8 (4): 288-98, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Tricoli JV, Boardman LA, Patidar R, et al.: A mutational comparison of adult and adolescent and young adult (AYA) colon cancer. Cancer 124 (5): 1070-1082, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]

Several retrospective studies of adolescent and young adult (AYA) patients with colorectal cancer are summarized.

Survival is consistent with the advanced stage of disease observed in most children with colorectal cancer, with an overall mortality rate of approximately 70%. For patients with a complete surgical resection or for those with low-stage/localized disease, survival is significantly prolonged, with the potential for cure.[6]

References

1. Akinkuotu AC, Maduekwe UN, Hayes-Jordan A: Surgical outcomes and survival rates of colon cancer in children and young adults. Am J Surg 221 (4): 718-724, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Zhou C, Xiao W, Wang X, et al.: Colorectal cancer under 20 years old: a retrospective analysis from three tertiary hospitals. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 147 (4): 1145-1155, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Poles GC, Clark DE, Mayo SW, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in pediatric patients: A comparison with adult tumors, treatment and outcomes from the National Cancer Database. J Pediatr Surg 51 (7): 1061-6, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Hayes-Jordan AA, Sandler G, Malakorn S, et al.: Colon Cancer in Patients Under 25 Years Old: A Different Disease? J Am Coll Surg 230 (4): 648-656, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. de Voer RM, Diets IJ, van der Post RS, et al.: Clinical, Pathology, Genetic, and Molecular Features of Colorectal Tumors in Adolescents and Adults 25 Years or Younger. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 19 (8): 1642-1651.e8, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Kaplan MA, Isikdogan A, Gumus M, et al.: Childhood, adolescents, and young adults (≤25 y) colorectal cancer: study of Anatolian Society of Medical Oncology. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 35 (2): 83-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]

Most reports suggest that children present with more advanced disease than adults, with 80% to 90% of pediatric patients presenting with Dukes stage C/D or TNM stage III/IV disease.[1–16] For more information, see the Stage Information for Colon Cancer section in Colon Cancer Treatment.

References

1. Hill DA, Furman WL, Billups CA, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in childhood and adolescence: a clinicopathologic review. J Clin Oncol 25 (36): 5808-14, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Saab R, Furman WL: Epidemiology and management options for colorectal cancer in children. Paediatr Drugs 10 (3): 177-92, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Chantada GL, Perelli VB, Lombardi MG, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 27 (1): 39-41, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Durno C, Aronson M, Bapat B, et al.: Family history and molecular features of children, adolescents, and young adults with colorectal carcinoma. Gut 54 (8): 1146-50, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Ferrari A, Rognone A, Casanova M, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children and adolescents: the experience of the Istituto Nazionale Tumori of Milan, Italy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (3): 588-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Karnak I, Ciftci AO, Senocak ME, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children. J Pediatr Surg 34 (10): 1499-504, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. LaQuaglia MP, Heller G, Filippa DA, et al.: Prognostic factors and outcome in patients 21 years and under with colorectal carcinoma. J Pediatr Surg 27 (8): 1085-9; discussion 1089-90, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Radhakrishnan CN, Bruce J: Colorectal cancers in children without any predisposing factors. A report of eight cases and review of the literature. Eur J Pediatr Surg 13 (1): 66-8, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Sharma AK, Gupta CR: Colorectal cancer in children: case report and review of literature. Trop Gastroenterol 22 (1): 36-9, 2001 Jan-Mar. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Taguchi T, Suita S, Hirata Y, et al.: Carcinoma of the colon in children: a case report and review of 41 Japanese cases. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 12 (3): 394-9, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Pratt CB, Rao BN, Merchant TE, et al.: Treatment of colorectal carcinoma in adolescents and young adults with surgery, 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin/interferon-alpha 2a and radiation therapy. Med Pediatr Oncol 32 (6): 459-60, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Sultan I, Rodriguez-Galindo C, El-Taani H, et al.: Distinct features of colorectal cancer in children and adolescents: a population-based study of 159 cases. Cancer 116 (3): 758-65, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Kaplan MA, Isikdogan A, Gumus M, et al.: Childhood, adolescents, and young adults (≤25 y) colorectal cancer: study of Anatolian Society of Medical Oncology. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 35 (2): 83-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Kim G, Baik SH, Lee KY, et al.: Colon carcinoma in childhood: review of the literature with four case reports. Int J Colorectal Dis 28 (2): 157-64, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Poles GC, Clark DE, Mayo SW, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in pediatric patients: A comparison with adult tumors, treatment and outcomes from the National Cancer Database. J Pediatr Surg 51 (7): 1061-6, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Akinkuotu AC, Maduekwe UN, Hayes-Jordan A: Surgical outcomes and survival rates of colon cancer in children and young adults. Am J Surg 221 (4): 718-724, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Colon Cancer Treatment and Rectal Cancer Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Most pediatric patients with colorectal cancer present with evidence of metastatic disease,[1] either as gross tumor or as microscopic deposits in lymph nodes, on the surface of the bowel, or on intra-abdominal organs.[2,3]

Treatment options for childhood colorectal cancer include the following:

References

1. Hill DA, Furman WL, Billups CA, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in childhood and adolescence: a clinicopathologic review. J Clin Oncol 25 (36): 5808-14, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Ferrari A, Rognone A, Casanova M, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children and adolescents: the experience of the Istituto Nazionale Tumori of Milan, Italy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (3): 588-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Chantada GL, Perelli VB, Lombardi MG, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 27 (1): 39-41, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Saab R, Furman WL: Epidemiology and management options for colorectal cancer in children. Paediatr Drugs 10 (3): 177-92, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Madajewicz S, Petrelli N, Rustum YM, et al.: Phase I-II trial of high-dose calcium leucovorin and 5-fluorouracil in advanced colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 44 (10): 4667-9, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Blanke CD, Bot BM, Thomas DM, et al.: Impact of young age on treatment efficacy and safety in advanced colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of patients from nine first-line phase III chemotherapy trials. J Clin Oncol 29 (20): 2781-6, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Wolmark N, Bryant J, Smith R, et al.: Adjuvant 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin with or without interferon alfa-2a in colon carcinoma: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol C-05. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (23): 1810-6, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Overman MJ, McDermott R, Leach JL, et al.: Nivolumab in patients with metastatic DNA mismatch repair-deficient or microsatellite instability-high colorectal cancer (CheckMate 142): an open-label, multicentre, phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol 18 (9): 1182-1191, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Le DT, Kim TW, Van Cutsem E, et al.: Phase II Open-Label Study of Pembrolizumab in Treatment-Refractory, Microsatellite Instability-High/Mismatch Repair-Deficient Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: KEYNOTE-164. J Clin Oncol 38 (1): 11-19, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. André T, Shiu KK, Kim TW, et al.: Pembrolizumab in Microsatellite-Instability-High Advanced Colorectal Cancer. N Engl J Med 383 (23): 2207-2218, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Saltz LB, Clarke S, Díaz-Rubio E, et al.: Bevacizumab in combination with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy as first-line therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer: a randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 26 (12): 2013-9, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Heinemann V, von Weikersthal LF, Decker T, et al.: FOLFIRI plus cetuximab versus FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab as first-line treatment for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (FIRE-3): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 15 (10): 1065-75, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Van Cutsem E, Tabernero J, Lakomy R, et al.: Addition of aflibercept to fluorouracil, leucovorin, and irinotecan improves survival in a phase III randomized trial in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer previously treated with an oxaliplatin-based regimen. J Clin Oncol 30 (28): 3499-506, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Grothey A, Van Cutsem E, Sobrero A, et al.: Regorafenib monotherapy for previously treated metastatic colorectal cancer (CORRECT): an international, multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 381 (9863): 303-12, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Malignant pancreatic tumors are rare in children and adolescents, with an incidence of 0.46 cases per 1 million individuals younger than 30 years.[1–4]

The primary pancreatic tumors of childhood can be classified into the following four categories:

References

1. Chung EM, Travis MD, Conran RM: Pancreatic tumors in children: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 26 (4): 1211-38, 2006 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Perez EA, Gutierrez JC, Koniaris LG, et al.: Malignant pancreatic tumors: incidence and outcome in 58 pediatric patients. J Pediatr Surg 44 (1): 197-203, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Dall’igna P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, et al.: Pancreatic tumors in children and adolescents: the Italian TREP project experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (5): 675-80, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Brecht IB, Schneider DT, Klöppel G, et al.: Malignant pancreatic tumors in children and young adults: evaluation of 228 patients identified through the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Result (SEER) database. Klin Padiatr 223 (6): 341-5, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Pancreatic Cancer Treatment and Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors (Islet Cell Tumors) Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Rojas Y, Warneke CL, Dhamne CA, et al.: Primary malignant pancreatic neoplasms in children and adolescents: a 20 year experience. J Pediatr Surg 47 (12): 2199-204, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Dall’igna P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, et al.: Pancreatic tumors in children and adolescents: the Italian TREP project experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (5): 675-80, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Chung EM, Travis MD, Conran RM: Pancreatic tumors in children: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 26 (4): 1211-38, 2006 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Papavramidis T, Papavramidis S: Solid pseudopapillary tumors of the pancreas: review of 718 patients reported in English literature. J Am Coll Surg 200 (6): 965-72, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Estrella JS, Li L, Rashid A, et al.: Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas: clinicopathologic and survival analyses of 64 cases from a single institution. Am J Surg Pathol 38 (2): 147-57, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Laje P, Bhatti TR, Adzick NS: Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas in children: a 15-year experience and the identification of a unique immunohistochemical marker. J Pediatr Surg 48 (10): 2054-60, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Rodriguez-Matta E, Hemmerich A, Starr J, et al.: Molecular genetic changes in solid pseudopapillary neoplasms (SPN) of the pancreas. Acta Oncol 59 (9): 1024-1027, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Leraas HJ, Kim J, Sun Z, et al.: Solid Pseudopapillary Neoplasm of the Pancreas in Children and Adults: A National Study of 369 Patients. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 40 (4): e233-e236, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Vasudevan SA, Ha TN, Zhu H, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for the treatment of pancreatic neoplasms in children: A Pediatric Surgical Oncology Research Collaborative study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (9): e28425, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Crocoli A, Grimaldi C, Virgone C, et al.: Outcome after surgery for solid pseudopapillary pancreatic tumors in children: Report from the TREP project-Italian Rare Tumors Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (3): e27519, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Jentzsch C, Fuchs J, Agaimy A, et al.: Solid pseudopapillary neoplasms of the pancreas in childhood and adolescence-an analysis of the German Registry for Rare Pediatric Tumors (STEP). Eur J Pediatr 182 (12): 5341-5352, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Maffuz A, Bustamante Fde T, Silva JA, et al.: Preoperative gemcitabine for unresectable, solid pseudopapillary tumour of the pancreas. Lancet Oncol 6 (3): 185-6, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Chung EM, Travis MD, Conran RM: Pancreatic tumors in children: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 26 (4): 1211-38, 2006 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Bien E, Godzinski J, Dall’igna P, et al.: Pancreatoblastoma: a report from the European cooperative study group for paediatric rare tumours (EXPeRT). Eur J Cancer 47 (15): 2347-52, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Chisholm KM, Hsu CH, Kim MJ, et al.: Congenital pancreatoblastoma: report of an atypical case and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34 (4): 310-5, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Glick RD, Pashankar FD, Pappo A, et al.: Management of pancreatoblastoma in children and young adults. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34 (Suppl 2): S47-50, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Honda S, Okada T, Miyagi H, et al.: Spontaneous rupture of an advanced pancreatoblastoma: aberrant RASSF1A methylation and CTNNB1 mutation as molecular genetic markers. J Pediatr Surg 48 (4): e29-32, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Isobe T, Seki M, Yoshida K, et al.: Integrated Molecular Characterization of the Lethal Pediatric Cancer Pancreatoblastoma. Cancer Res 78 (4): 865-876, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Bien E, Roganovic J, Krawczyk MA, et al.: Pancreatoblastoma in children: EXPeRT/PARTNER diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations. Pediatr Blood Cancer 68 (Suppl 4): e29112, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Vasudevan SA, Ha TN, Zhu H, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for the treatment of pancreatic neoplasms in children: A Pediatric Surgical Oncology Research Collaborative study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (9): e28425, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Lindholm EB, Alkattan AK, Abramson SJ, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for pediatric and adolescent pancreatic malignancy: A single-center retrospective analysis. J Pediatr Surg 52 (2): 299-303, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Dall’igna P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, et al.: Pancreatic tumors in children and adolescents: the Italian TREP project experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (5): 675-80, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Défachelles AS, Martin De Lassalle E, Boutard P, et al.: Pancreatoblastoma in childhood: clinical course and therapeutic management of seven patients. Med Pediatr Oncol 37 (1): 47-52, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Belletrutti MJ, Bigam D, Bhargava R, et al.: Use of gemcitabine with multi-stage surgical resection as successful second-line treatment of metastatic pancreatoblastoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 35 (1): e7-10, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Dhamne C, Herzog CE: Response of Relapsed Pancreatoblastoma to a Combination of Vinorelbine and Oral Cyclophosphamide. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 37 (6): e378-80, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Hamidieh AA, Jalili M, Khojasteh O, et al.: Autologous stem cell transplantation as treatment modality in a patient with relapsed pancreatoblastoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 55 (3): 573-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Rojas Y, Warneke CL, Dhamne CA, et al.: Primary malignant pancreatic neoplasms in children and adolescents: a 20 year experience. J Pediatr Surg 47 (12): 2199-204, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Dall’igna P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, et al.: Pancreatic tumors in children and adolescents: the Italian TREP project experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (5): 675-80, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Jensen RT, Cadiot G, Brandi ML, et al.: ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with digestive neuroendocrine neoplasms: functional pancreatic endocrine tumor syndromes. Neuroendocrinology 95 (2): 98-119, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Chung EM, Travis MD, Conran RM: Pancreatic tumors in children: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 26 (4): 1211-38, 2006 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Melikyan M, Gubaeva D, Shadrina A, et al.: Insulinoma in childhood: a retrospective review of 22 patients from one referral centre. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 14: 1127173, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Vasudevan SA, Ha TN, Zhu H, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for the treatment of pancreatic neoplasms in children: A Pediatric Surgical Oncology Research Collaborative study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (9): e28425, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Kulke MH, Benson AB, Bergsland E, et al.: Neuroendocrine tumors. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 10 (6): 724-64, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

References

1. Rojas Y, Warneke CL, Dhamne CA, et al.: Primary malignant pancreatic neoplasms in children and adolescents: a 20 year experience. J Pediatr Surg 47 (12): 2199-204, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Dall’igna P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, et al.: Pancreatic tumors in children and adolescents: the Italian TREP project experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (5): 675-80, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Chung EM, Travis MD, Conran RM: Pancreatic tumors in children: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 26 (4): 1211-38, 2006 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Lüttges J, Stigge C, Pacena M, et al.: Rare ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreas in patients younger than age 40 years. Cancer 100 (1): 173-82, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Rustgi AK: Familial pancreatic cancer: genetic advances. Genes Dev 28 (1): 1-7, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Primary gastric tumors in children are rare, and carcinoma of the stomach is even more unusual.[1] In one series, gastric cancer in children younger than 18 years accounted for 0.11% of all gastric cancer cases seen over an 18-year period.[2] In another study that used data from the National Cancer Database, patients younger than 21 years with gastric carcinoma were compared with patients older than 21 years.[3] Of the 129,024 cases identified, only 129 cases (0.1%) occurred in pediatric patients. While pediatric patients presented with more-advanced disease, overall survival for the two groups was similar. A retrospective analysis queried data from the Cerner Health Facts Database. The analysis identified 333 patients with gastric cancer (non-gastrointestinal stromal tumors, nonhematologic) from a base population of 9.6 million children.[4] The male-to-female ratio was 1.15 to 1. The mean age at diagnosis was 11.8 years. Gastric cancer was most prevalent in non-Hispanic White people and less common in Asian and Black people. Symptoms included abdominal pain, vomiting, anemia, diarrhea, and weight loss. Reflux symptoms with or without esophagitis, gastritis (including Helicobacter pylori gastritis), and duodenitis were reported in 10.2% of patients. Obesity, obesity-related comorbidities, tobacco use, and family history of colonic polyps, gastrointestinal cancer, and breast cancer were all more prevalent in this cohort of patients (P < .0001).

Prognosis depends on the extent of the disease at the time of diagnosis and the success of treatment that is appropriate for the clinical situation.[2]

Rare cases of familial diffuse gastric cancer associated with CDH1 germline pathogenic variants have been reported in adolescents.[5]

H. pylori infections may increase the risk of gastric cancer.[2,6] A Chinese study identified 1,015 pediatric patients with H. pylori infections who had endoscopic and histological data available to analyze.[7] The incidence rate of gastric mucosal precancerous lesions in children with H. pylori infections was 4.33% (37 of 854). There were 17 cases of atrophic gastritis, 11 cases of intestinal metaplasia, and 9 cases of dysplasia. For patients without H. pylori, there was only one case of atrophic gastritis (0.62%; 1 of 161 patients; P < .05).

References

1. Curtis JL, Burns RC, Wang L, et al.: Primary gastric tumors of infancy and childhood: 54-year experience at a single institution. J Pediatr Surg 43 (8): 1487-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Subbiah V, Varadhachary G, Herzog CE, et al.: Gastric adenocarcinoma in children and adolescents. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (3): 524-7, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Tessler RA, Dellinger M, Richards MK, et al.: Pediatric gastric adenocarcinoma: A National Cancer Data Base review. J Pediatr Surg 54 (5): 1029-1034, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Attard TM, Omar U, Glynn EF, et al.: Gastric cancer in the pediatric population, a multicenter cross-sectional analysis of presentation and coexisting comorbidities. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 149 (3): 1261-1272, 2023. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Guilford P, Hopkins J, Harraway J, et al.: E-cadherin germline mutations in familial gastric cancer. Nature 392 (6674): 402-5, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Saf C, Gulcan EM, Ozkan F, et al.: Assessment of p21, p53 expression, and Ki-67 proliferative activities in the gastric mucosa of children with Helicobacter pylori gastritis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 27 (2): 155-61, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Yu M, Ma J, Song XX, et al.: Gastric mucosal precancerous lesions in Helicobacter pylori-infected pediatric patients in central China: A single-center, retrospective investigation. World J Gastroenterol 28 (28): 3682-3694, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]

Gastric tumors must be distinguished from other conditions such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma, malignant carcinoid, leiomyosarcoma, and various benign conditions or tumors of the stomach.[1] Symptoms of carcinoma of the stomach include the following:

Fiberoptic endoscopy can be used to visualize the tumor or to take a biopsy sample to confirm the diagnosis. Confirmation can also involve imaging of the upper gastrointestinal tract.

References

1. Curtis JL, Burns RC, Wang L, et al.: Primary gastric tumors of infancy and childhood: 54-year experience at a single institution. J Pediatr Surg 43 (8): 1487-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Gastric Cancer Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for pediatric gastric carcinoma include the following:

Treatment includes surgical excision with wide margins. For individuals who cannot have a complete surgical resection, radiation therapy may be used along with chemotherapeutic agents such as fluorouracil and irinotecan.[1] Other agents that may be of value are the nitrosoureas with or without cisplatin, etoposide, doxorubicin, or mitomycin C.

For information about the treatment of gastric cancer in adults, see Gastric Cancer Treatment. For information about the treatment of GIST in children, see Childhood Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GIST) Treatment.

References

1. Ajani JA: Current status of therapy for advanced gastric carcinoma. Oncology (Huntingt) 12 (8 Suppl 6): 99-102, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary was comprehensively reviewed.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.

Adrenocortical tumors encompass a spectrum of diseases with an often-seamless transition from benign (adenoma) to malignant (carcinoma) characteristics.

The incidence of adrenocortical tumors in children is extremely low (only 0.2% of pediatric cancers).[1] In children, 25 new cases generally occur annually in the United States, for an estimated annual incidence of 0.2 to 0.3 cases per 1 million individuals.[2,3] Internationally, however, the incidence of adrenocortical tumors appears to vary substantially. In southern Brazil, it is approximately 10 to 15 times higher than that observed in the United States.[4–6]

Incidence rates of adrenocortical tumors appear to follow a bimodal distribution, with peaks during the first and fourth decades.[7] Childhood adrenocortical tumors typically present during the first 5 years of life (median age, 3–4 years), although there is a second, smaller peak during adolescence.[3,8–10]

Female sex is consistently predominant in most studies, with a female-to-male ratio of 1.6:1.0.[7,9,10]

References

1. Ribeiro RC, Figueiredo B: Childhood adrenocortical tumours. Eur J Cancer 40 (8): 1117-26, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Berstein L, Gurney JG: Carcinomas and other malignant epithelial neoplasms. In: Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., eds.: Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. National Cancer Institute, SEER Program, 1999. NIH Pub.No. 99-4649, Chapter 11, pp 139-148. Also available online. Last accessed August 23, 2022.
3. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
4. Figueiredo BC, Sandrini R, Zambetti GP, et al.: Penetrance of adrenocortical tumours associated with the germline TP53 R337H mutation. J Med Genet 43 (1): 91-6, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Pianovski MA, Maluf EM, de Carvalho DS, et al.: Mortality rate of adrenocortical tumors in children under 15 years of age in Curitiba, Brazil. Pediatr Blood Cancer 47 (1): 56-60, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Rodriguez-Galindo C, Figueiredo BC, Zambetti GP, et al.: Biology, clinical characteristics, and management of adrenocortical tumors in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 45 (3): 265-73, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Michalkiewicz E, Sandrini R, Figueiredo B, et al.: Clinical and outcome characteristics of children with adrenocortical tumors: a report from the International Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumor Registry. J Clin Oncol 22 (5): 838-45, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Wieneke JA, Thompson LD, Heffess CS: Adrenal cortical neoplasms in the pediatric population: a clinicopathologic and immunophenotypic analysis of 83 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 27 (7): 867-81, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Redlich A, Boxberger N, Strugala D, et al.: Systemic treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma in children: data from the German GPOH-MET 97 trial. Klin Padiatr 224 (6): 366-71, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Gulack BC, Rialon KL, Englum BR, et al.: Factors associated with survival in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: An analysis of the National Cancer Data Base (NCDB). J Pediatr Surg 51 (1): 172-7, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]

Predisposing genetic factors have been implicated in more than 50% of adrenocortical carcinoma cases in North America and Europe and in 95% of cases in Brazil.[1] Germline TP53 pathogenic variants are almost always the predisposing factor for adrenocortical tumors. The likelihood of a TP53 germline pathogenic variant is highest in the first years of life and diminishes with age.

Patients with Beckwith-Wiedemann and hemihypertrophy syndromes have a predisposition to cancer, and as many as 16% of their neoplasms are adrenocortical tumors.[6] Hypomethylation of the KCNQ1OT1 gene has also been associated with the development of adrenocortical tumors in patients without the phenotypic features of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.[7] However, less than 1% of children with adrenocortical tumors have these syndromes.[8]

The distinctive genetic features of pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma have been reviewed.[9]

References

1. Wasserman JD, Novokmet A, Eichler-Jonsson C, et al.: Prevalence and functional consequence of TP53 mutations in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: a children’s oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 33 (6): 602-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Rodriguez-Galindo C, Figueiredo BC, Zambetti GP, et al.: Biology, clinical characteristics, and management of adrenocortical tumors in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 45 (3): 265-73, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Ribeiro RC, Sandrini F, Figueiredo B, et al.: An inherited p53 mutation that contributes in a tissue-specific manner to pediatric adrenal cortical carcinoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98 (16): 9330-5, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Rodriguez-Galindo C: Adrenocortical tumors in children. In: Schneider DT, Brecht IB, Olson TA: Rare Tumors in Children and Adolescents. Springer-Verlag, 2012, pp 436-44.
5. Custódio G, Parise GA, Kiesel Filho N, et al.: Impact of neonatal screening and surveillance for the TP53 R337H mutation on early detection of childhood adrenocortical tumors. J Clin Oncol 31 (20): 2619-26, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Hoyme HE, Seaver LH, Jones KL, et al.: Isolated hemihyperplasia (hemihypertrophy): report of a prospective multicenter study of the incidence of neoplasia and review. Am J Med Genet 79 (4): 274-8, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Wijnen M, Alders M, Zwaan CM, et al.: KCNQ1OT1 hypomethylation: a novel disguised genetic predisposition in sporadic pediatric adrenocortical tumors? Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (3): 565-6, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Steenman M, Westerveld A, Mannens M: Genetics of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome-associated tumors: common genetic pathways. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 28 (1): 1-13, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. El Wakil A, Doghman M, Latre De Late P, et al.: Genetics and genomics of childhood adrenocortical tumors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 336 (1-2): 169-73, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]

Pediatric adrenocortical tumors are almost universally functional. As a result, they cause endocrine disturbances, and a diagnosis is usually made 5 to 8 months after the first signs and symptoms emerge.[1,2]

Because of the hormone hypersecretion, it is possible to establish an endocrine profile for each particular tumor. This profile may help evaluate response to treatment and monitor for tumor recurrence.[3]

Nonfunctional tumors are rare (<10%) and tend to occur in older children.[1]

References

1. Michalkiewicz E, Sandrini R, Figueiredo B, et al.: Clinical and outcome characteristics of children with adrenocortical tumors: a report from the International Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumor Registry. J Clin Oncol 22 (5): 838-45, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Wieneke JA, Thompson LD, Heffess CS: Adrenal cortical neoplasms in the pediatric population: a clinicopathologic and immunophenotypic analysis of 83 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 27 (7): 867-81, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Rodriguez-Galindo C: Adrenocortical tumors in children. In: Schneider DT, Brecht IB, Olson TA: Rare Tumors in Children and Adolescents. Springer-Verlag, 2012, pp 436-44.
4. Gönç EN, Özön ZA, Cakır MD, et al.: Need for comprehensive hormonal workup in the management of adrenocortical tumors in children. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 6 (2): 68-73, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Ghazi AA, Mofid D, Salehian MT, et al.: Functioning adrenocortical tumors in children-secretory behavior. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 5 (1): 27-32, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Hanna AM, Pham TH, Askegard-Giesmann JR, et al.: Outcome of adrenocortical tumors in children. J Pediatr Surg 43 (5): 843-9, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Redlich A, Boxberger N, Strugala D, et al.: Systemic treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma in children: data from the German GPOH-MET 97 trial. Klin Padiatr 224 (6): 366-71, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

Unlike adult adrenocortical tumors, histological differentiation of pediatric adenomas and malignant carcinomas is difficult.[1,2] In fact, adenomas and carcinomas appear to share multiple genetic aberrations and may represent points on a continuum of cellular transformation.[3]

It appears that approximately 10% to 20% of pediatric cases are adenomas.[1,2] Macroscopically, adenomas tend to be well defined and spherical, and they never invade surrounding structures. They are typically small (usually <200 cm3), and some studies have included size as a criterion for adenomas. By contrast, carcinomas have macroscopic features suggestive of malignancy. They are larger and show marked lobulation with extensive areas of hemorrhage and necrosis. Microscopically, carcinomas comprise larger cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm, arranged in alveolar clusters. Several authors have proposed histological criteria that may help distinguish the two types of neoplasms.[4–6]

Morphological criteria may not allow reliable distinction of benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors. Mitotic rate is consistently reported as the most important determinant of aggressive behavior.[7] IGF2 expression also appears to discriminate between carcinomas and adenomas in adults but not in children.[8,9] Other histopathological variables are also important. Risk groups may be identified based on a score derived from tumor characteristics such as tumor necrosis; mitotic rate; the presence of atypical mitoses; and venous, capsular, or adjacent organ invasion.[6,7,10,11]

References

1. Wooten MD, King DK: Adrenal cortical carcinoma. Epidemiology and treatment with mitotane and a review of the literature. Cancer 72 (11): 3145-55, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Wieneke JA, Thompson LD, Heffess CS: Adrenal cortical neoplasms in the pediatric population: a clinicopathologic and immunophenotypic analysis of 83 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 27 (7): 867-81, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Figueiredo BC, Stratakis CA, Sandrini R, et al.: Comparative genomic hybridization analysis of adrenocortical tumors of childhood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 (3): 1116-21, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Weiss LM: Comparative histologic study of 43 metastasizing and nonmetastasizing adrenocortical tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 8 (3): 163-9, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. van Slooten H, Schaberg A, Smeenk D, et al.: Morphologic characteristics of benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors. Cancer 55 (4): 766-73, 1985. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Das S, Sengupta M, Islam N, et al.: Weineke criteria, Ki-67 index and p53 status to study pediatric adrenocortical tumors: Is there a correlation? J Pediatr Surg 51 (11): 1795-1800, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Stojadinovic A, Ghossein RA, Hoos A, et al.: Adrenocortical carcinoma: clinical, morphologic, and molecular characterization. J Clin Oncol 20 (4): 941-50, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Almeida MQ, Fragoso MC, Lotfi CF, et al.: Expression of insulin-like growth factor-II and its receptor in pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93 (9): 3524-31, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. West AN, Neale GA, Pounds S, et al.: Gene expression profiling of childhood adrenocortical tumors. Cancer Res 67 (2): 600-8, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Rodriguez-Galindo C: Adrenocortical tumors in children. In: Schneider DT, Brecht IB, Olson TA: Rare Tumors in Children and Adolescents. Springer-Verlag, 2012, pp 436-44.
11. Gupta N, Rivera M, Novotny P, et al.: Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Children: A Clinicopathological Analysis of 41 Patients at the Mayo Clinic from 1950 to 2017. Horm Res Paediatr 90 (1): 8-18, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]

A study performed on 71 pediatric adrenocortical tumors (37 in a discovery cohort and 34 in an independent cohort) provided a description of the genomic landscape of this disease.[1]

Paternal 11p15 uniparental disomy (UPD). A retrospective analysis of patients with adrenocortical tumors at the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital identified six children with wild-type TP53 and germline paternal 11p15 UPD.[2] The median age of the five girls and one boy was 3.2 years (range, 0.5–11 years). Two patients met the criteria for Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome before diagnosis of their adrenocortical tumors. However, adrenocortical tumor was the first and only manifestation of paternal 11p15 UPD in four of the children. Despite poor prognostic features at presentation, such as pulmonary metastasis, bilateral adrenal involvement, and large tumors, all patients were alive 8 to 21 years after their cancer diagnosis.

References

1. Pinto EM, Chen X, Easton J, et al.: Genomic landscape of paediatric adrenocortical tumours. Nat Commun 6: 6302, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Pinto EM, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Lam CG, et al.: Adrenocortical Tumors in Children With Constitutive Chromosome 11p15 Paternal Uniparental Disomy: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 12: 756523, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]

The overall probability of 5-year survival for children with adrenocortical tumors depends on stage. Survival rates range from greater than 80% for patients with resectable disease to less than 20% for patients with metastases.[1–7]

Overall, adverse prognostic factors for adrenocortical carcinoma include the following:

A portion of patients with adrenocortical carcinoma do not have a germline TP53 pathogenic variant. A retrospective review of children with adrenocortical carcinoma identified 60 patients without germline TP53 pathogenic variants.[8] There was a strong female predominance (female-to-male ratio, 42:18) in this group of patients. The 3-year progression-free survival (PFS) rate was 71.4%, and the OS rate was 80.5%. Prognostic factors for this group were the same as the factors identified in previous analyses that did not segregate for TP53 germline pathogenic variant status. Unfavorable prognostic features included older age, higher disease stage, heavier tumor weight, presence of somatic TP53 variants, and higher Ki-67 labeling index. Ki-67 labeling index and age remained significantly associated with PFS after adjusting for stage and tumor weight.

References

1. Michalkiewicz E, Sandrini R, Figueiredo B, et al.: Clinical and outcome characteristics of children with adrenocortical tumors: a report from the International Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumor Registry. J Clin Oncol 22 (5): 838-45, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Wieneke JA, Thompson LD, Heffess CS: Adrenal cortical neoplasms in the pediatric population: a clinicopathologic and immunophenotypic analysis of 83 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 27 (7): 867-81, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Sandrini R, Ribeiro RC, DeLacerda L: Childhood adrenocortical tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 (7): 2027-31, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Redlich A, Boxberger N, Strugala D, et al.: Systemic treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma in children: data from the German GPOH-MET 97 trial. Klin Padiatr 224 (6): 366-71, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. McAteer JP, Huaco JA, Gow KW: Predictors of survival in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program study. J Pediatr Surg 48 (5): 1025-31, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Cecchetto G, Ganarin A, Bien E, et al.: Outcome and prognostic factors in high-risk childhood adrenocortical carcinomas: A report from the European Cooperative Study Group on Pediatric Rare Tumors (EXPeRT). Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (6): , 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gupta N, Rivera M, Novotny P, et al.: Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Children: A Clinicopathological Analysis of 41 Patients at the Mayo Clinic from 1950 to 2017. Horm Res Paediatr 90 (1): 8-18, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Pinto EM, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Pounds SB, et al.: Identification of Clinical and Biologic Correlates Associated With Outcome in Children With Adrenocortical Tumors Without Germline TP53 Mutations: A St Jude Adrenocortical Tumor Registry and Children’s Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 35 (35): 3956-3963, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Klein JD, Turner CG, Gray FL, et al.: Adrenal cortical tumors in children: factors associated with poor outcome. J Pediatr Surg 46 (6): 1201-7, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Gulack BC, Rialon KL, Englum BR, et al.: Factors associated with survival in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: An analysis of the National Cancer Data Base (NCDB). J Pediatr Surg 51 (1): 172-7, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Bulzico D, de Faria PA, de Paula MP, et al.: Recurrence and mortality prognostic factors in childhood adrenocortical tumors: Analysis from the Brazilian National Institute of Cancer experience. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 33 (4): 248-58, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Leite FA, Lira RC, Fedatto PF, et al.: Low expression of HLA-DRA, HLA-DPA1, and HLA-DPB1 is associated with poor prognosis in pediatric adrenocortical tumors (ACT). Pediatr Blood Cancer 61 (11): 1940-8, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Pinto EM, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Choi JK, et al.: Prognostic Significance of Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Expression in Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumors: A St. Jude and Children’s Oncology Group Study. Clin Cancer Res 22 (24): 6247-6255, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Martins-Filho SN, Almeida MQ, Soares I, et al.: Clinical Impact of Pathological Features Including the Ki-67 Labeling Index on Diagnosis and Prognosis of Adult and Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumors. Endocr Pathol 32 (2): 288-300, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Riedmeier M, Agarwal S, Antonini S, et al.: Assessment of prognostic factors in pediatric adrenocortical tumors: the modified pediatric S-GRAS score in an international multicenter cohort-a work from the ENSAT-PACT working group. Eur J Endocrinol 191 (1): 64-74, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]

Tumor staging is performed using the tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) classification system of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC). For more information, see the Stage Information for Adrenocortical Carcinoma section in Adrenocortical Carcinoma Treatment.

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence has slowly increased since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following pediatric specialists and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation to achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

For specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer, see the summaries on Supportive and Palliative Care.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has outlined guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children and adolescents with cancer.[2] At these centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with current standard therapy. Other types of clinical trials test novel therapies when there is no standard therapy for a cancer diagnosis. Most of the progress in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2020, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[3–5] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because side effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[6] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 people in the United States. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. In adults, rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people. They account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[7,8] In children and adolescents, the designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the relatively few patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the small number of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer, such as Adrenocortical Carcinoma Treatment.

References

1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. American Academy of Pediatrics: Standards for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 134 (2): 410-4, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. National Cancer Institute: NCCR*Explorer: An interactive website for NCCR cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed February 25, 2025.
5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute: SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available online. Last accessed December 30, 2024.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ferrari A, Brecht IB, Gatta G, et al.: Defining and listing very rare cancers of paediatric age: consensus of the Joint Action on Rare Cancers in cooperation with the European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors. Eur J Cancer 110: 120-126, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children’s Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]

At the time of diagnosis, two-thirds of pediatric patients have limited disease (tumors that can be completely resected), and the remaining patients have either unresectable or metastatic disease.[1]

The European Cooperative Study Group for Pediatric Rare Tumors within the PARTNER project (Paediatric Rare Tumours Network – European Registry) has published consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of childhood adrenocortical tumors.[2] Treatment of childhood adrenocortical tumors has evolved using the data from adult studies, and the same guidelines are used. Surgery is the most important mode of therapy, and mitotane and cisplatin-based regimens, usually incorporating doxorubicin and etoposide, are recommended for patients with advanced disease.[3–6]; [7][Level of evidence C1]

Treatment options for childhood adrenocortical tumors include the following:

Adrenocortical tumors are generally considered to be radioresistant. The use of radiation therapy in pediatric patients with adrenocortical tumors has not been consistently investigated. Furthermore, because many children with adrenocortical tumors carry germline TP53 pathogenic variants that predispose them to cancer, radiation may increase the incidence of secondary tumors. One study reported that three of five long-term survivors of pediatric adrenocortical tumors died of secondary sarcomas that arose within the radiation field.[6,16]

For more information, see Adrenocortical Carcinoma Treatment.

References

1. Michalkiewicz E, Sandrini R, Figueiredo B, et al.: Clinical and outcome characteristics of children with adrenocortical tumors: a report from the International Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumor Registry. J Clin Oncol 22 (5): 838-45, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Virgone C, Roganovic J, Vorwerk P, et al.: Adrenocortical tumours in children and adolescents: The EXPeRT/PARTNER diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations. Pediatr Blood Cancer 68 (Suppl 4): e29025, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Rodriguez-Galindo C, Figueiredo BC, Zambetti GP, et al.: Biology, clinical characteristics, and management of adrenocortical tumors in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 45 (3): 265-73, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Zancanella P, Pianovski MA, Oliveira BH, et al.: Mitotane associated with cisplatin, etoposide, and doxorubicin in advanced childhood adrenocortical carcinoma: mitotane monitoring and tumor regression. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 (8): 513-24, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Hovi L, Wikström S, Vettenranta K, et al.: Adrenocortical carcinoma in children: a role for etoposide and cisplatin adjuvant therapy? Preliminary report. Med Pediatr Oncol 40 (5): 324-6, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Rodriguez-Galindo C: Adrenocortical tumors in children. In: Schneider DT, Brecht IB, Olson TA: Rare Tumors in Children and Adolescents. Springer-Verlag, 2012, pp 436-44.
7. Redlich A, Boxberger N, Strugala D, et al.: Systemic treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma in children: data from the German GPOH-MET 97 trial. Klin Padiatr 224 (6): 366-71, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Stewart JN, Flageole H, Kavan P: A surgical approach to adrenocortical tumors in children: the mainstay of treatment. J Pediatr Surg 39 (5): 759-63, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Hubertus J, Boxberger N, Redlich A, et al.: Surgical aspects in the treatment of adrenocortical carcinomas in children: data of the GPOH-MET 97 trial. Klin Padiatr 224 (3): 143-7, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Kardar AH: Rupture of adrenal carcinoma after biopsy. J Urol 166 (3): 984, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Gonzalez RJ, Shapiro S, Sarlis N, et al.: Laparoscopic resection of adrenal cortical carcinoma: a cautionary note. Surgery 138 (6): 1078-85; discussion 1085-6, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Rodriguez-Galindo C, Krailo MD, Pinto EM, et al.: Treatment of Pediatric Adrenocortical Carcinoma With Surgery, Retroperitoneal Lymph Node Dissection, and Chemotherapy: The Children’s Oncology Group ARAR0332 Protocol. J Clin Oncol 39 (22): 2463-2473, 2021. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Reibetanz J, Jurowich C, Erdogan I, et al.: Impact of lymphadenectomy on the oncologic outcome of patients with adrenocortical carcinoma. Ann Surg 255 (2): 363-9, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Ribeiro RC, Figueiredo B: Childhood adrenocortical tumours. Eur J Cancer 40 (8): 1117-26, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Terzolo M, Angeli A, Fassnacht M, et al.: Adjuvant mitotane treatment for adrenocortical carcinoma. N Engl J Med 356 (23): 2372-80, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Driver CP, Birch J, Gough DC, et al.: Adrenal cortical tumors in childhood. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 15 (6): 527-32, 1998 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]

Treatment options for relapsed childhood adrenocortical tumors include the following:

References

1. Geoerger B, Kang HJ, Yalon-Oren M, et al.: Pembrolizumab in paediatric patients with advanced melanoma or a PD-L1-positive, advanced, relapsed, or refractory solid tumour or lymphoma (KEYNOTE-051): interim analysis of an open-label, single-arm, phase 1-2 trial. Lancet Oncol 21 (1): 121-133, 2020. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Campbell MT, Balderrama-Brondani V, Jimenez C, et al.: Cabozantinib monotherapy for advanced adrenocortical carcinoma: a single-arm, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 25 (5): 649-657, 2024. [PUBMED Abstract]

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Prognostic Factors

Added Grade, Resection status, Age, and Symptom (GRAS) score as an adverse prognostic factor for adrenocortical carcinoma. Also added text to state that the GRAS score is a validated predictor of outcome for adrenocortical carcinoma. The European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumours modified the GRAS score to include staging (S-GRAS). They reported that the S-GRAS score was superior to individual components for prediction of outcome in 268 children with adrenocortical carcinoma. The S-GRAS score generated four groups, from 1 to 4. The 5-year overall survival rates by group were 98% for group 1, 87% for group 2, 43% for group 3, and 18% for group 4. In univariable analysis, higher tumor stage, higher grade, incomplete resection, older age, and presence of hormone-related symptoms were associated with an inferior prognosis (cited Riedmeier et al. as reference 15).

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.